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Abstract
After evolutionary theory was introduced in China, Herbert Spencer's interpretation of it in the form of social Darwinism persuaded the Chinese that if they wanted to strengthen their nation, they would have to accept the brutal truth of natural selection, in which the principle of survival of the fittest rules. This version of evolutionary theory, when combined with the pragmatic thrust of Confucianism and the realpolitik of legalism from China's indigenous tradition, started a storm of materialism and utilitarianism in modern China. In the process, the traditional social order based on the rule of propriety (li) was completely subverted and replaced by a new order predicated on the rule of competition and power. This development produced a new mental outlook that privileged power over everything else, seriously undermined the rules of ethics and caused serious political consequences in the late Qing and early Republican period. This intellectual development may have contributed to ending the dynastic rule in China, but it was also responsible for ruining the newborn Republican China. The Chinese intellectuals of the May Fourth era critically reflected on this problematic legacy. While still believing in the notion of progress, they abandoned social Darwinism and embraced the idea of evolution through mutual assistance. Thus began a historical shift in modern China from focusing on wealth and power to focusing on civilization as China's salvation.
Notes
1 Yang Du, “Jin tie zhuyi shuo” [An Ideology of Gold and Iron], in Yang Du ji [An Anthology of Yang Du], ed. Liu Qingbo (Changsha: Hunan renmin chubanshe, 1986), 220.
2 Du Yaquan, “Lun shehui biandong zhi qushi yu wo ren chushi zhi fangzhen” [Observations on Social Trends and Our Strategies to Adapt], in Du Yaquan wencun [An Anthology of Du Yaquan], ed. Xu Jilin and Tian Jianye (Shanghai: Shanghai jiaoyu chubanshe, 2003), 284–85.
3 Yan Fu, “Yuan qian xiuding gao” [Revised Version of “On Power”], in Yan Fu ji [An Anthology of Yan Fu], vol. 1, ed. Wang Shi (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1986), 27.
4 Liang Qichao, “Xin min shuo: lun shangwu” [On New People: Militarism], in Liang Qichao quanji [The Complete Works of Liang Qichao], vol. 2, ed. Zhang Pinxing (Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, 1999), 712–13.
5 Liang Qichao, “Shuo dong” [On Dynamics], in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 1, 175–76.
6 Kang Youwei, “Wuzhi jiuguo lun” [Saving the Country with Things], in Kang Youwei zhenglun ji [Kang Youwei's Political Essays], vol. 1, ed. Tang Zhijun (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1981), 565.
7 Ibid.
8 Yang Du, “Jintie zhuyi shuo,” in Yang Du ji, 225–27.
10 Yan Fu, “Yuan qiang” [The Origins of Power], in Zhongguo xiandai xueshu jingdian – Yan Fu juan [Modern Chinese Scholarship – The Volume of Essays by Yan Fu], ed. Ouyang Zhesheng (Shijiazhuang: Hebei jiaoyu chubanshe, 1996), 540–41.
9 Liang Qichao, “Xin min shuo: lun guojia sixiang” [On New People: Thoughts on State], in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 2, 664.
11 Liang Qichao, “Lun qiangquan” [On Powers], in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 1, 353.
12 Liang Qichao, “Xianjin shijie dashi lun” [On Major Trends in the Contemporary World], in Yinbingshi heji ji wai wen [Liang Qichao's Essays Not Included in the Collection of Liang's Work], vol. 2, ed. Xia Xiaohong (Beijing: Peking University Press, 2005), 1253.
14 Liang Qichao, “Lun qiangquan,” in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 1, 353.
13 Liang Qichao, “Guojia sixiang bianqian lun” [The Shifts in Thoughts about States], in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 1, 458.
16 Liang Qichao, “Lun qiangquan,” in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 1, 352–53.
15 Liang Qichao, “Huobushi xue an” [Hobbs' Thoughts], in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 1, 499.
17 Liang Qichao, “Xin min shuo: lun quanli sixiang” [On New People: On Rights], in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 2, 671.
18 Ibid., 673.
21 Anonymous, “Quanli pian” [On Rights], in Xinhai geming qian shi nian jian shilun xuanji, vol. 1, part I, 483.
19 Liang Qichao, “Xin min shuo – lun guojia sixiang,” in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 2, 663.
20 Li Shucheng, “Xuesheng zhi jingzheng” [The Competition Among Students], in Xinhai geming qian shi nian jian shilun xuanji [Selected Essays during the Decade before the 1911 Revolution], vol. 1, part I, ed. Zhang Nan and Wang Renzhi (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1960), 457.
23 Ibid.
22 Benjamin Schwartz, In Search of Wealth and Power: Yen Fu and the West (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1987), 238.
24 Ibid., 239.
25 Liang Qichao, “Xin min shuo: lun shengli fen li” [On New People: The Origins of Power and Its Benefits], in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 2, 696.
26 Liang Qichao, “Ziyou shu” [On Freedom], in Liang Qichao quanji, vol. 1, 354.
27 Ibid., 341.
28 Anonymous, “Taotai pian” [On Playoffs], in Xinhai geming qian shinian jian shilun xuanji, vol. 1, 268.
29 Zhang Taiyan, “Ju fen jinhualun” [Multiple Evolution Theories], in Ge gu ding xin de zheli: Zhang Taiyan wenxuan [Theories on Reform: Selected Works of Zhang Taiyan], ed. Jiang Bin (Shanghai: Shanghai yuandong chubanshe, 1996), 150.
30 Gu Hongming, “The Story of a Chinese Oxford Movement” [Zhongguo niujin yundong gushi], in Gu Hongming wenji [Collection of Gu Hongming's works], vol.1, ed. Huang Xingtao (Haikou: Hainan chubanshe, 1996), 321.
31 Ibid., 322.
32 Ibid., 286.
33 Du Yaquan, “Jingshen jiuguo lun, xu er” [Saving China with Spiritual Rejuvenation, part II], in Du Yaquan wencun, 654.
34 Ibid., 33–37.
35 Ibid., 40–41.
36 Du Yaquan, “Lun shehui biandong zhi qushi yu wuren chushi zhi fangzhen,” in Du Yaquan wencun, 285.
37 Du Yaquan, “Jingshen jiuguo lun” [Saving China with Spiritual Rejuvenation], in Du Yaquan wencun, 39.
39 Sun Zhongshan, “Zai Shanghai Zhongguo shehuidang de yanshuo” [Sun's Speech at the Headquarters of Chinese Socialist Party], in Sun Zhongshan quanji [The Complete Work of Sun Yat-sen] vol. 2, ed. Institute of Modern History at Guangdong Academy of Social Sciences and Institute of Modern History at Chinese Academy of Social Sciences and Institute of Sun Yat-sen Studies at Zhongshan University (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1982), 508.
38 For issues related to the relationship between evolution through mutual aid and Chinese anarchists, see James Reeve Pusey, China and Charles Darwin (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983), 370–434.
40 Sun Zhongshan, “Jianguo fanglue” [The Plan for a New China], in Sun Zhongshan xuanji [Selected Works of Sun Yat-sen], ed. the Institute of Modern History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1956), 156.
41 Du Yaquan, “Jingshen jiuguo lun, xu er,” 49–55.
46 Li dazhao, “Jieji jingzheng yu huzhu” [Class Struggle and Mutual Aid], in Li dazhao quanji, 288.
42 Cai Yuanpei, “Heian yu guangming de xiaozhang” [The Ebb and Flow of Darkness and Light], in Cai Juemin xiansheng yanxing lu [The Words and Deeds of Mr. Cai] (repr. Jinan: Shandong renmin chubanshe, 1998), 53. Originally published, Beijing: Xinchaoshe, 1920.
43 Cai Yuanpei, “Da zhan yu zhexue” [The Great War and Philosophy], in Cai Juemin xiansheng yanxing lu, 48–51.
44 Li Dazhao, “Xin jiyuan” [New Era], in Li dazhao quanji [The Complete Works of Li Dazhao], vol. 3, ed. Li Dazhao quanji Editorial Committee (Shijiazhuang: Hebei jiaoyu chubanshe, 1999), 128.
45 Ibid.
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