The Chinese interpretation of the concept of imperialism in the anti-imperialist context of the 1920s

Abstract

“Imperialism” was one of most frequently used political terms in China during the twentieth century. The spread of the concept of imperialism in China reached its initial climax during the 1920s when the Chinese Communist Party first introduced the term “anti-imperialism” and during the large scale nationalist movements, such as the May Thirtieth Movement; these factors turned the word “imperialism” into a core concept in interpreting the relationships of that time between China and the West. In different contexts, “imperialism” sometimes refers to a country or a combination of several countries, sometimes refers to an economic system, and in other cases, it was closely linked to the unequal treaties. Despite its multiple concrete connotations, its symbolic meaning was fairly unitary: imperialism as a symbol of aggression of Western powers in China was unanimously recognized by Chinese. The Chinese Nationalists and Communists all made the greatest efforts in probing the concept of imperialism, while intellectual circles as well as the news media also demonstrated strong interest in the concept. Through examining different interpretations of the concept of imperialism, we can still reach some consensus: economic aggression was gradually becoming the core content of all the different interpretations of imperialism.

Keywords:

• imperialism
• capitalism
• unequal treaties
• the May Thirtieth Movement
• anti-imperialism

Notes

¹For discussion on the concept of imperialism, refer to Raymond Williams' Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), 159–60; Gao Dai, “'Diguozhuyi gainian kaoxi” [An Examination on the Concept of Imperialism], Lishi jiaoxue – gaoxiaoban [History Education: Higher Education Version], no. 2 (2007); Yin Tai, “Jiejihuayu de jian'gou yu shijian: yi 1920 niandai zhongguo ‘guomingeming’ wei zhongxin de fenxi” [The Construction and Practice of Class Discourse: An Analysis Focused on “Nationalist Revolution” in China during the 1920s] (PhD diss., School of International Studies, Renmin University of China, 2007), 113–15.

²As for the origins of the word “imperialism,” please refer to Wolfgang Lippert's Hanyu zhong de makesizhuyi shuyu de qiyuan yu zuoyong [The Origins and Functions of Marxist Terminology in Chinese], trans. Zhao Qian, Wang Cao, and Ge Pingzhu (Beijing: Zhongguo shehuikexue chubanshe, 2003), 160–65.

³Liang Qichao, “Lun minzu jingzheng zhi dashi” [Grand Trends in National Competition], in Yinbingshi heji [The Drink-Ice Room Collection], vol. 10 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1989), 10.

⁴Anonymous, “Lun diguozhuyi zhi fada ji ershishiji shijie zhi qiantu” [The Development of Imperialism and the Future of the Twentieth Century], in Xinhai geming qianshinian shilun xuanji [Selected Commentaries during the Ten Years Before the 1911 Revolution], vol. 1-A, eds. Zhang Nan and Wang Renzhi (Beijing: Sanlian shudian, 1960), 53.

⁵ Liang Qichao, “Guojia sixiang bianqian yitonglun” [The Differences and Similarities in the Changes of National Ideology], in Xinhai geming qianshinian shilun xuanji, vol. 1-A, 33–34.

⁶Yuchenzi, “Lun shijie jingji jingzheng zhi dashi” [Grand Trends of Economic Competition in the World], in Xinhai geming qianshinian shilun xuanji, vol. 1-A, 200.

⁷Anonymous, “Lun zhongguo zhi qiantu ji guomin yingjin zhi zeren” [China's Future and A Citizen's Duties], in Xinhai geming qianshinian shilun xuanji, vol. 1-A, 460. There is already a lot of research that has been done on the Chinese understanding of imperialism in the early twentieth century since that time on. See Li Shiyue's “Ershishiji chunian zhongguo zhishijie de diguozhuyiguan he minzuzhuyiguan” [The Chinese Intellectuals' Ideas on Imperialism and Nationalism in the Early Twentieth Century], Jilin daxue xuebao [Journal of Jilin University], no. 3 (1962); Li Zilin, “Shilun benshijichu zichanjieji gemingpai dui diguozhuyi de renshi” [On the Bourgeois Revolutionaries' Understanding of Imperialism in the Early Twentieth Century], Huazhong shifan xueyuan xuebao [Journal of Huazhong Normal University], no. 1 (1982); Qi Weiping, “Ershishijichu zhongguoren dui diguozhuyi gainian de shiyong ji renshi de juxian” [The Chinese Application of the Concept of Imperialism and the Limits of Their Understanding in the Early Twentieth Century], Huadong shifan daxue xuebao [Journal of East China Normal University], no. 5 (1985).

⁸ Liang Qichao, “Guojia sixiang bianqian yitonglun,” 33.

⁹Yuchenzi, “Lun shijie jingji jingzheng zhi dashi,” 198.

¹⁰“Anti-imperialism” is a general term. There were slogans like “down with imperialism,” “overthrow imperialism,” and “opposition to imperialism” going around at the same time. Here we generalize them all under “anti-imperialism.”

¹¹“Guanyu ‘guoji diguozhuyi yu zhongguo gongchandang’ de jueyian” [The Resolution on “International Imperialism and the Communist Party of China”], in Zhonggong zhongyang wenjian xuanji, 1921–1925 [The Selective Documents of the CCP Central Committee, 1921–1925], ed. Zhongyang dang'an guan [Central Archives] (Beijing: Zhonggong zhongyang dangxiao chubanshe, 1982), 35.

¹²“Zhongguo gongchandang disanci quanguo daibiao dahui xuanyan” [The Declaration of the Third National Congress of the Communist Party of China], in Zhonggong zhongyang wenjian xuanji, 128–29.

¹³“Chen Duxiu tongzhi daibiao zhonggongzhongyang xiang disanci dangdaibiao huiyi de baogao” [Comrade Chen Duxiu's Report on Behalf of the Central Committee for the Third Party Congress], August 18, 1923, in Zhonggong “Sanda” ziliao [Documents of the CCP Third Congress], ed. Guangdong geming lishi bowuguan [Guangdong Museum of Revolutionary History] (Guangzhou: Guangdong renmin chubanshe, 1985), 59.

¹⁴N.F. Kiselev, “Zhongguo gongchandang de chuqi geming huodong (jiexuan)” [The Early Revolutionary Activities of the Communist Party of China (Excerpts)], in Erda he sanda [The Second Congress and the Third Congress], ed. Institute of Modern History, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (Beijing: Zhongguo shehuikexue chubanshe, 1985), 471.

¹⁵Qu Qiubai, “‘Dadao diguozhuyi’ de gudian” [Historical Origin of “Down with Imperialism”], in Qu Qiubai wenji [The Collected Works of Qu Qiubai], vol. 2 (Beijing: Renmin wenxue chubanshe, 1953), 438.

¹⁶Dalei, “Wusa yundong zhifenxi ji jinianzhi yiyi” [An Analysis of the May Thirtieth Movement and Its Significance], Renmin zhoukan [People's Weekly], no. 12–13, May 26, 1926, 13.

¹⁷Zheng Chaolin, “Diguozhuyi tusha Shanghai shimin zhi jingguo” [The Course of the Imperialists' Massacre of Shanghai Residents], in Wusa yundong [The May Thirtieth Movement], ed. Shanghai Municipal Archives, 1st ed. (Shanghai: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1981), 267.

¹⁸Zhang Shenfu, “Diguozhuyi deng” [Imperialism and Others], Yusi [Threads of Talk] 1, no. 35 (July 13, 1925), 123.

¹⁹Dalei, “Wusa yundong zhifenxi ji jinianzhi yiyi,” 14.

²⁰“Hu Hanmin dui Shanghai zujie baoxing xuanyan” [Hu Hanmin's Declaration on the Massacre in the International Settlement in Shanghai], June 7, 1925, in Zhonghua minguoshi dang'anziliao huibian [A Compilation of Archival Documents of the History of Republican China], vol. 4-A, ed. Zhongguo dier lishi danganguan [The Second Historical Archives of China] (Nanjing: Jiangsu guji chubanshe, 1986), 510.

²¹“Zhongguo guomindang guanyu guomin huiyi yubei huiyi zhi xuanyan” [The Declaration of the Chinese Nationalist Party on the Preparatory Meeting of the National Congress], July 13, 1925, in Zhongguo guomindang xuanyanji (zengding ben) [A Collection of Declarations of the Chinese Nationalist Party (Updated Version)] (Taipei: Zhongyang wenwu gongyingshe, 1976), 147.

²²Datong, “Zuzhi jizhong, xuanchuan jizhong – gemingzhe lianheqilai” [Centralize Our Organization and Implode Our Propaganda – All Revolutionaries, Unite!], Zhengzhi shenghuo [Political Life], no. 43 (June 21, 1925), 3.

²³“Quanguo xuesheng zonghui, Shanghai xuelian faqi zuzhi Shanghai fan diguozhuyi da tongmeng” [The Federation of Student Unions and Shanghai Students Alliance Co-Sponsored Shanghai Anti-Imperialism Alliance], Shishi xinbao [Current Events], August 30, 1925, 3.

²⁴Vera Schwarcz, Zhang Shenfu fangtanlu [Time for Telling Truth is Running Out: Conversations with Zhang Shenfu], trans. Li Shaoming (Beijing: Beijing tushuguan chubanshe, 2001), 185.

²⁵Tang Youren, “Wusa yundong de chengji” [Achievements of the May Thirtieth Movement], Xiandai pinglun [Modern Review] 4, no. 84 (July 27, 1926), 3.

²⁶Qu Qiubai, “Diguozhuyi zhi ‘wusa’ tusha yu zhongguo de guomin geming” [The Imperialists' May Thirtieth Massacre and the National Revolution in China], Xiangdao [The Guide], no. 119 (June 22, 1925), 1097.

²⁷Duxiu, “Benbao sannian lai geming zhengce zhi gaiguan” [A Summary of Revolutionary Policies of Our Journal], Xiangdao, no. 128 (September 7, 1925), 1174.

²⁸Dai Jitao, “Guomin geming yu zhongguo guomindang (jielu)” [The National Revolution and the Chinese Nationalist Party of China (Excerpts)], in Zhongguo xiandai sixiangshi ziliao jianbian [Data Compendium of Modern Intellectual History of China], ed. Cai Shangsi, vol. 2 (Hangzhou: Zhejiang renmin chubanshe, 1982), 590.

²⁹Cai Yuanpei, “Wusa xunnan lieshimu beiwen” [Inscriptions for Martyrs of the May Thirtieth Massacre], in Cai Yuanpei xuanji [The Selected Works of Cai Yuanpei], ed. Gao Pingshu, vol. 5 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1984), 157.

³⁰As a contemporary noted, “for the meaning of imperialism, there are so many different opinions.” See Chen Qixiu, “Diguozhuyi you baise he chise zhi bie ma?” [Are There Any Differences between the White Imperialism and Red Imperialism?], Chenbao [Morning Post], October 6, 1925.

³¹Ma Wenyan, “Hewei diguozhuyi?” [What is Imperialism?], Gongjin [March Forward Together], no. 75 (February 1, 1925), 7.

³²Chen Jun, “Guanyu su e chouyou wenti de taolun” [Discussions on the Question if the Soviet Union is our Friend or Enemy], Chenbao fujuan [Morning Post Supplement], no. 1290 (October 15, 1925), 3.

³³Zhang Shenfu, “Diguozhuyi deng” 1, 123.

³⁴Jianfu, “Jiuqi guochi jinian yu fandiguozhuyi yundong” [National Humiliation Commemoration of September 7th and the Anti-Imperialism Movement], Xuesheng zazhi [Students Magazine] 11, no. 9 (September 5, 1925), 5.

³⁵Duxiu, “Shenme shi diguozhuyi? Shenme shi junfa?” [What is Imperialism? What is A Warlord?], Xiangdao, no. 149 (April 13, 1926), 1400.

³⁶Zhu Zhixin, “Guojiazhuyi zhi fasheng jiqi biantai” [The Occurrence of Nationalism and Its Varieties], in Zhu Zhixin ji [Collected Works of Zhu Zhixin], ed. History Department, Guangdong Institute of Philosophy and Social Sciences, vol. 1 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1979), 348.

³⁷Sun Yat-sen, “Minzuzhuyi disijiang” [The Fourth Lecture on Nationalism], February 17, 1924, in Sun Zhongshan quanji [Complete Works of Sun Yat-sen], vol. 9 (Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1986), 221.

³⁸Mao Yibo, “Su e bushi diguozhuyi de guojia ma?” [Isn't the Soviet Union an Imperialist Country?], Shishi xinbao, November 2, 1925.

³⁹He Bingsong, “Diguozhuyi yu guojiazhuyi” [Imperialism and Nationalism], in He Bingsong wenji [Collected Works of He Bingsong], eds. Liu Yinsheng and Fang Xinliang, vol. 2 (Beijing: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1997), 198.

⁴⁰Zhang Weici, “Minzuzhuyi yu diguozhuyi” [Nationalism and Imperialism], Dongfan zazhi [The Eastern Miscellany] 25, no. 15 (August 10, 1928), 14.

⁴¹Chen Jun, “Guanyu su e chouyou wentide taolun”.

⁴²Xiao Chunü, “Boxinshijun de (diguozhuyi)” [Refuting Mr. Xinshi's Imperialism], June 28, 1924, in Xiao Chunü wencun [Xiao Chunü's Surviving Works], ed. Guangdong geming lishi bowuguan [Guangdong Museum of Revolutionary History] (Beijing: Zhonggong dangshi chubanshe, 1998), 128–29.

⁴³Anonymous, “‘Diguozhuyi’ de yiyi” [The Meaning of Imperialism], Gongjin, no. 67 (August 10, 1924), 2.

⁴⁴Shuzhi, “Xinghai geming de yuanyin he jieguo” [The Causes and Results of the 1911 Revolution], Xiangdao, special issue for the double ten festival, no. 86 (October 8, 1924), 700.

⁴⁵Zhang Shenfu, “Diguozhuyi deng” 1, 124.

⁴⁶Chen Qixiu, “Diguozhuyi you baise he chise zhi bie ma?”.

⁴⁷Chen Gongbo, “Guomin geming de weiji yu women de cuowu” [The Crisis of the National Revolution and Our Mistakes], Gongxian [Contribution] 2, no. 2 (March 1928), 15.

⁴⁸“Zhongguo gongchandang danggang cao'an” [A Draft Program of the Communist Party of China], July 1923, in Zhonggong zhongyang wenjian xuanji, 1921–1925, 107.

⁴⁹Li Da, “He wei diguozhuyi” [What is Imperialism?], in Li Da wenji [Collected Works of Li Da], vol. 1 (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1980), 192.

⁵⁰Qu Weita (Qu Qiubai), “Dongfang wenhua yu shijie geming” [The Eastern Culture and the World Revolution], in Qu Qiubai wenji: zhengzhililun bian [Collected Works of Qu Qiubai: Political Theories], vol. 2 (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1988), 18.

⁵¹Duxiu, “Shenme shi diguozhuyi? Shenme shi junfa?”, 1401.

⁵²Shanshui, “Diguozhuyi qinlue zhongguo de fangshi” [The Forms of Imperialist Aggression in China], Gongjin, no. 67 (August 10, 1924), 6.

⁵³Jianfu, “Jiuqi guochi jinian yu fandiguozhuyi yundong”, 6.

⁵⁴Dai Jitao, “Guomin geming yu zhongguo guomindang”, 590.

⁵⁵“Fei jidujiao datongmeng xuanyan” [The Declaration of the Non-Christian Alliance], Minguo ribao: Juewu [National Daily: Consciousness], special issue of the Non-Christian Movement, no. 1 (August 19, 1924).

⁵⁶Hairuo, “Fanji yundong de xin celue” [The New Strategies of the Non-Christian Movement], Zhongguo xuesheng [Chinese Students], no. 40 (October 30, 1926), 415.

⁵⁷“Bianyan”, Xingshi [Awakened Lion], special issue on Sino–Russian relations, no. 40 (July 11, 1925), 1.

⁵⁸“Wei beifa chenggong gao beifang renmin shu” [An Announcement to the People of Northern China about Our Victory of Northern Expedition] (printed by Guomin gemingjun zongsilingbu zhengzhibu [Political Department of the General Command of the National Revolutionary Armies], location unclear, 1927), 3.