Scottish Pioneers of Tools for Low Temperature Geothermal Applications: William Cullen, the Stirling Brothers and William Rankine

Abstract

The heat pump is a tool for extracting low temperature heat from the environment (e.g. from the shallow geosphere) and supplying it for space heating at a higher temperature. It is noteworthy that so much of the pioneering work that allowed the development of this tool was associated with Scottish scientists and engineers. William Cullen’s experimentation led to an understanding of the transfer of latent heat (which takes place at the evaporator of the heat pump). William Rankine and the Stirling brothers worked on the thermodynamic cycles that lie at the heart of many heat pumps and low temperature heat engines. William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) first proposed the use of the heat pump for space heating and, with James David Forbes, worked on an understanding of the behaviour of heat in the ground.

Keywords:

• heat pump
• geothermal energy
• heat engine
• thermodynamic cycle, evaporation

Notes

1. D. Banks, An Introduction to Thermogeology – Ground Source Heating and Cooling, 2nd edn (Chichester: Wiley, 2012), 544 pp.

2. A. Harber, Study into the Potential for Deep Geothermal in Scotland, by AECOM Energy (Edinburgh: The Scottish Government, 2013); P. L. Younger, J. G. Gluyas and W. E. Stephens, ‘Development of Deep Geothermal Energy Resources in the UK’, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers – Energy, 165 (2012), 19–32. doi: 10.1680/ener.11.00009; D. A. C. Manning, P. L. Younger, F. W. Smith, J. M. Jones, D. J. Dufton and S. Diskin, ‘A Deep Geothermal Exploration Well at Eastgate, Weardale, UK; A Novel Exploration Concept for Low-enthalpy Resources’, Journal of the Geological Society of London, 164/2 (2007), 371–82. doi: 10.1144/0016-76492006-015.

3. I. Kolin, S. Koscak-Kolin and M. Golub, ‘Geothermal Electricity Production by Means of the Low Temperature Difference Stirling Engine’ (proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress, 28 May–10 June 2000, Kyushu-Tohoku, Japan, 3199–203).

4. D. Banks, ‘William Thomson – Father of Thermogeology’, Scottish Journal of Geology, 51/1 (2015), 95–9. doi: 10.1144/sjg2013-017.

5. D. Banks, ‘Dr T. G. N. “Graeme” Haldane – Scottish Heat Pump Pioneer’, The International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology, 85/2 (2015), 168–76. doi: 10.1179/1758120615Z.00000000061.

6. Kolin (see note 3).

7. T. Masters, The Ice Book, being a Compendious and Concise History of Everything Connected with Ice, from its First Introduction into Europe as an Article of Luxury to the Present Time, with an Account the Artificial Manner of Producing Pure and Solid Ice and a Valuable Collection of the Most Approved Recipes for Making Water Ices and Ice Creams At A Few Minutes Notice (London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co., 1844); E. O’Neill, The Iceman Cometh (New York: Random House, 1946); G. Weightman, The Frozen Water Trade (London: Harper Collins, 2003).

8. J. Leslie, A Short Account of Experiments and Instruments Depending on the Relations of Air to Heat and Moisture (Edinburgh: William Blackwood & Others, 1813), 178 pp.

9. J. S. Hodson, Repertory of Patent Inventions and Other Discoveries and Improvements in Arts, Manufactures and Agriculture. New series, Volume 7 (London: J.S. Hodson, 1837); F. Bramwell, ‘Ice-making’, Journal of the Society of Arts, 31/1568 (1882), 76–7; J. A. Ewing, The Mechanical Production of Cold, 2nd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1921), pp. 82–3.

10. W. Thomson and J. P. Joule, ‘On the Thermal Effects of Fluids in Motion’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 143 (1853), 357–65.

11. W. J. M. Rankine, ‘On the Geometrical Representation of the Expansive Action of Heat, and the Theory of Thermo-dynamic Engines’, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, 6 (1854), 388–92 and, in expanded version, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 144 (1854), 115–75.

12. Thomson (see note 10).

13. J. Thomson, An Account of the Life, Lectures and Writings of William Cullen, M.D. 2 volumes (Edinburgh: William Blackwood, 1832 (vol. 1), 1859 (vol. 2)).

14. W. Cullen, An Essay on the Cold Produced by Evaporating Fluids and of some other Means of Producing Cold, published as an appendix to Experiments upon Magnesia Alba, Quick-Lime and other Alcaline Substances by J. Black (Edinburgh: William Creech, 1777), p. 115, Originally read and published in 1756.

15. Ibid., p. 128.

16. Ibid., pp. 131–2.

17. Banks (see note 1); Masters (see note 7); Weightman (see note 7); Leslie (see note 8), pp. 7–10 and 47–8.

18. Leslie (see note 8), pp. 138–78.

19. W. J. M. Rankine, A Manual of the Steam Engine and Other Prime Movers (Glasgow: Richard Griffin & Co., 1859), 575 pp.

20. N. L. S. Carnot, Réflexions sur la Puissance Motrice du Feu (Paris: Bacelier, 1824). Translated by R. H. Thurston as Reflections on the Motive Power of Heat (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1897).

21. J. P. Joule, ‘On the Calorific Effects of Magneto-electricity, and on the Mechanical Value of Heat’, Philosophical Magazine (Series 3), 23/152 (1843), 263–76; J. P. Joule, ‘On the Mechanical Equivalent of Heat’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 140 (1850), 61–82.

22. D. Lindley, Degrees Kelvin: A Tale of Genius, Invention and Tragedy (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2004), p. 104.

23. Rankine (see note 11).

24. R. Sier, Rev Robert Stirling D.D. Inventor of the Heat Economiser and Stirling Cycle Engine, (Chelmsford: L.A. Mair, 1995), 189 pp.

25. Leslie (see note 8), pp. 138–78.

26. Sier (see note 24), p. 17 and p. 73.

27. W. Thomson, ‘Notice of Stirling’s Air Engine’ (read 21 April 1847), Proceedings of the Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 2 (1848), 169–70.

28. C. C. Lloyd, A Low Temperature Differential Stirling Engine for Power Generation (M.Eng. thesis, Canterbury: University of Canterbury, 2009), 118 pp; A. Scheyhing, Assessment of Low Temperature Electricity Production with Focus on Geothermal Energy (Göteborg: Chalmers University of Technology MSc thesis, 2012), 60 pp; P. T. Gaynor, R. Y. Webb and C. C. Lloyd, ‘Power Generation using Low Temperature Differential Stirling Engine Technology’ (proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia, April 25–29, 2010).

29. Sier (see note 24), pp. 52–62 and p. 67.

30. R. Buchanan, Practical and Descriptive Essays on the Economy of Fuel and Management of Heat (Glasgow: Hedderwick & Co., 1810), 253 pp.

31. Sier (see note 24), pp. 17–23.

32. Ibid., p. 37 and p. 79.

33. Lloyd (see note 28).

34. Sier (see note 24) pp. 88–101; Institution of Civil Engineers, ‘Obituary. James Stirling. 1800–76’, Minutes of the Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 44 (1876), 221–4.

35. Sier (see note 24), p. 32, pp. 74–6, pp. 107–9.

36. Thomson (see note 27).

37. Rankine (see note 19).

38. W. J. M. Rankine, ‘On the Geometrical Representation of the Expansive Action of Heat, and the Theory of Thermo-dynamic Engines’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 144, 115–75.

39. Kolin (see note 3); see also the three works of note 29.

40. Kolin (see note 3).

41. Banks (see note 4).

42. Ibid.

43. H. B. Sutherland, ‘Professor William John Macquorn Rankine’, Civil Engineering (Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers), 132/4 (1999), 181–7.

44. W. J. M. Rankine, Songs and Fables (London: Macmillan and Co., 1874), 3–6.

45. W. J. M. Rankine, ‘On the Stability of Loose Earth’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, 147 (1857), 9–27.

46. H. Brandl, ‘Energy Foundations and Other Thermo-active Ground Structures’, Géotechnique, 56/2 (2006), 81–122.

47. Rankine (see note 11).

48. Rankine (see note 44), “The Three-foot Rule”, 20–2.

49. Enertime, Organic Rankine Cycle – Markets. Enertime partnership. <http://archive.is/http://www.cycle-organique-rankine.com/marches-constructeurs-reference.php> [accessed July 6, 2016].

50. International Energy Agency. Renewable Energy Essentials: Geothermal. (Paris: OECD/IEA, 2010). <http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Geothermal_Essentials.pdf>.

51. A. Genter, X. Goerke, J.-J. Graff, N. Cuenot, G. Krall, M. Schindler and G. Ravier, ‘Current Status of the EGS Soultz Geothermal Project (France)’ (proceedings of the World Geothermal Congress 2010, Bali, Indonesia, April 25–29, 2010).

52. Banks (see note 4); W. Thomson, ‘On the Economy of Heating or Cooling of Buildings by Means of Currents of Air’, Proceedings of the Royal Philosophical Society Glasgow, 3 (1852), 269–72.

53. Thomson (see note 27).

54. Banks (see note 4).

55. R. V. Southwell, ‘W. J. M. Rankine: A commemorative lecture’, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, 5/3 (1956), 177–93.

56. W. Thomson, ‘On the Dynamical Theory of Heat, with Numerical Results Deduced from Mr. Joule’s Equivalent of a Thermal Unit and M. Regnault’s Observations of Steam’, Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (March 1851). Reproduced in Mathematical and Physical Papers by Sir William Thomson, Volume 1, Article XLVIII (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1882), pp. 174–332.

57. G. Cook, ‘Rankine and the Theory of Earth Pressure’, Géotechnique, 2/4 (1951), 271–9.

58. Banks (see note 1); Younger (see note 2).

59. Manning (see note 2).

60. Younger (see note 2).

61. Harber (see note 2); Younger (see note 2).

62. Younger (see note 2).

63. Banks (see note 1).

64. Harber (see note 2).

65. Kolin (see note 3).