Promoting responsible harvesting by mitigating IUU fishing: a three-block and OODA construct?

ABSTRACT

Key aspects of illegal, unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing are grouped within four tactical challenges. These challenges are analogous to the four-block military dimensions of immediate action, peacekeeping, humanitarian assistance and psychological/information operations. They are nested within an overarching strategy focused on sustainable and responsible fishing, and are grouped within a tactical construct of five operational entities (beneficial owner, regulatory authority, Flag State, Port State and consumer). Sustainable and responsible fishing activities converge to meet the tactical challenges above through conservation measures agreed by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR). For fisheries management purposes, adaptable, flexible and tactical, execution of strategically formulated compliance-enforcement measures must be tailored to address higher-order goals, including coherent action for effective compliance-enforcement. CCAMLR's countering of Toothfish (Dissostichus spp.) IUU fishing demonstrates how ‘intuitive competences’ could be applied in a formative decision-making framework directed at overcoming situational disadvantages. Examples from contemporary military strategies (the three-block-war construct, the OODA (Observe, Orient, Decide and Act) doctrine and manoeuvre conflict model) indicate that dynamic application of OODA competencies in a manoeuvre conflict framework are a useful, and novel, way to enhance the success of current efforts to counter IUU fishing activity and promote responsible fishing.

Acknowledgements

We thank many colleagues for a lifetime of fascinating discussions on IUU fishing, particularly – David Agnew, Rachel Baird, Grant Bryden, Andrew Bedford, Kevern Cochrane, Andy Cohen, John Davis, Kim Dawson-Guynn, Martin and Natasha Exel, Marcel Kroese, Alistair Graham, David Japp, Martin Purves, Eugene Sabourenkov, Karen Sack and Barry Watkins. This paper is dedicated to the memories of Geoff Kirkwood and Gunnar Album, who uncluttered much of our thinking.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors

Denzil is a professorial fellow at the University of Wollongong. He has served as CCAMLR Executive Secretary and Chair of its Scientific Committee, He is a recipient of the South African Antarctic Medal (1995) and Duke of Edinburgh Conservation Medal (2007). He was made a Member of the Order of Australia (2011) for his Antarctic conservation efforts.

Elise is currently completing her PhD in Law at the University of Tasmania part-time, while working full-time for the Australian federal government on Commonwealth Marine Reserves. Elise's career in marine governance has seen her attend the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea in Germany, manage Australia's foreign compliance effort for the Australian Fisheries Management Authority and undertake stakeholder engagement for Australia's offshore petroleum regulator.

Notes

1. The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) provides a comprehensive definition of IUU fishing. In this paper, the term ‘illegal’ fishing is used when most appropriate, while ‘IUU’ fishing is applied in a more general and/or encompassing context. The term ‘illegal fishing’ infers that fishing is prosecuted in violation of Coastal State jurisdiction, or on the high seas in non-compliance with measures agreed by an applicable RFMO. FAO, ‘International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing’, FAO, Rome, 2001, paragraphs 3.1–3.4, p. 24, <http://www.fao.org/fishery/ipoa-iuu/en> (1 September 2015). Fishing generally comprises activities identified in the ‘CCAMLR System of Inspection, Section X’, Hobart, CCAMLR, <https://www.ccamlr.org/en/compliance/system-inspection> (1 September 2015).

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4. UNDOC, ‘Transnational Organized Crime in the Fishing Industry: Focus on Trafficking in Persons, Smuggling of Migrants, Illicit Drugs Trafficking’, Vienna, United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, 2011, pp. 3–5, <http://www.unodc.org/documents/human-trafficking/Issue_Paper_-_TOC_in_the_Fishing_Industry.pdf> (1 August 2015). H Österblom, A Constable & S Fukumi, ‘Illegal Fishing and the Organized Crime Analogy’, Trends in Ecology & Evolution, vol. 26, no. 6, 2011, pp. 261–2. P Bondaroff, N Teale, NT Reitano & W van der Werf, ‘The Illegal Fishing and Organized Crime Nexus: Illegal Fishing as Transnational Crime’, Geneva, The Global Initiative Against Transnational Organized Crime and the Black Fish, 2015, pp. 6–8. <http://www.globalinitiative.net/> (5 April 2016) (12 September 2015). From: http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCEQFjAAahUKEwjdgoS2i5bJAhWF5qYKHUoHDQ0&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.interpol.int%2Fcontent%2Fdownload%2F30447%2F395898%2Fversion%2F2%2Ffile%2FINTERPOL%2520Strategic%2520Report%2520-%2520Environmental%2520Crime%2520and%2520its%2520Convergence%2520with%2520other%2520Serious%2520Crimes.pdf&usg=AFQjCNH8R-lt5v50o3ZzYyqfWxnyYzNMPA&bvm=bv.107467506,d.dGY and http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CCUQFjAAahUKEwj0zq3pi5bJAhXkJKYKHdsjCDk&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.interpol.int%2Fcontent%2Fdownload%2F27590%2F369574%2Fversion%2F3%2Ffile%2FWACS%2520EN.pdf&usg=AFQjCNHdTKJWrjL_UMRz9uVdVEiRe3oG5w. As other ‘serious’ crimes (i.e. according to INTERPOL, the term ‘serious’ broadly refers to crimes of a significant nature and not necessarily those defined under any criminal law or international convention), ‘transnational’ criminal syndicates involved in fisheries violate national laws and regulations, as well as international conventions. The fishing crime perpetrator engages in fraud to avoid detection, using fraudulent documents to change names and national vessel/company registration(s). Complex and illegal trans-shipment practices also occur, when two vessels meet to pass cargo between them. This leads to IUU-caught products being brought onto the legitimate market. Other criminal activities associated with illegal fisheries include corruption and human trafficking, as well as drug trafficking and maritime piracy. (17 November 2015).

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96. CW Richards, ‘Boyd's OODA Loop: It Is Not What You Think’, 2012, pp. 1–32, <http://www.jvminc.com/boydsrealooda_loop.pdf> (21 September 2015).

97. FPB Osinga, Science, Strategy and War: The Strategic Theory of John Boyd, Eburon Academic Publisher, Delft, The Netherlands, 2005, p. 349, <http://www.projectwhitehorse.com/pdfs/ScienceStrategyWar_Osinga.pdf> (20 September 2015).

98. Combat Orders Foundations B2B2377 – Student Handout (Date Unknown), pp. 8–17, <http://navy.rotc.umich.edu/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Combat_Orders_Foundations.pdf>. A condensed summary of this information is provided at: <https://quizlet.com/85242688/b2b2377-combat-orders-foundations-flash-cards/>, while details of how such orders are implemented in the field can be found at: <http://www.usmcofficer.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/Patrol-Order-Overlay-Demonstration.pdf> (all 18 November 2015).

99. In these terms, ‘environmental interactions’ refer to the operational rather than the physical environment per se.

100. ‘Mindfulness’ is a mental state where awareness is focused on the present in a way that calmly acknowledges and accepts feelings, thoughts and bodily sensations. Richards, ‘Boyd's OODA Loop’.

101. J Collins, Good to Great: Why Some Companies Make the Leap … and Others Don’t, HarperCollins, New York, 2001, p. 320. See also <http://www.jimcollins.com/article_topics/articles/good-to-great.html> (21 September 2015).

102. JR Boyd, Strategic Game ofand ? (Unpublished Briefing), 1987a, p. 59, <http://www.dnipogo.org/boyd/pdf/strategy.pdf> (24 September 2015). J Gimian & B Boyce, The Rules of Victory: How to Transform Chaos and Conflict – Strategies from The Art of War, Shambhala, Boston, p. 293.

103. Sun Tzu, The Art of War, Nabla, p. 52.

104. Gimian & Boyce, ‘The Rules of Victory’. A similar ch’i strategy led to Al Capone's arrest despite his seeming immunity under prevailing US laws at the time. Capone's citation for a contempt of court charge was followed by his almost immediate, and bonded, release. Less than two months later, Capone was convicted for carrying concealed weapons and incarcerated for a year. When released he was re-arrested for the original contempt of court charge and sentenced to six months. This allowed investigators to collect sufficient evidence to convict Capone to 11 years in jail for tax evasion. He subsequently died in jail. A gradual application of legal pressure, unexpected legal action and Capone's own arrogance all contributed to this turn of events; something that the racketeering laws of the day were unable to achieve. <https://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2005/march/capone_032805> (5 October 2015).

105. JR Boyd, Organic Design for Command and Control (Unpublished Briefing), 1987, p. 38, <http://dnipogo.org/john-r-boyd/> (24 September 2015).

106. Boyd, Organic Design for Command and Control, p. 22.

107. JR Boyd, Patterns of Conflict (Unpublished briefing), 1986, p. 196, <http://dnipogo.org/john-r-boyd/> (29 September 2015).

108. KW Riddle, ‘Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing: Is International Cooperation Contagious?’, Ocean Development & International Law, vol. 37, no. 3, 2006, pp. 3–4, Table 2.

109. FAO, ‘International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing’.

110. CCAMLR CMs and Resolutions are at: http://www.ccamlr.org/en/system/files/e-schdedule2014-15.pdf. Under Article IX of the CAMLR Convention, CMs are legally binding on CCAMLR Members once the provisions of this Article are fulfilled. Resolutions are not legally binding and represent statements of intent, and/or recommended practice.

111. JR Boyd, ‘Conceptual Spiral’.

112. CCAMLR Basic Documents, Hobart, CCAMLR, 2013, <http://www.ccamlr.org/en/system/files/e-all_1.pdf> (30 September 2015).

113. M Lodge, D Anderson, T Løbach, G Munro, K Sainsbury & A Willock, ‘Recommended Best Practices for Regional Fisheries Management Organizations’, Royal Institute of International Affairs, Chatham House, London, 2007, p. 160, <https://www.chathamhouse.org/publications/papers/view/108602> (Password Protected Site – 18 September 2015).

114. CCAMLR, Commission Report (CCAMLR-XXII), CCAMLR, Hobart, 2003, pp. 8–13 (para 6.46), <http://www.ccamlr.org/en/system/files/e-cc-xxii.pdf> (30 September 2015).

115. CCAMLR, Commission Report (CCAMLR-XXII), paras 6.27–6.29.

116. See http://www.ccamlr.org/en/compliance/contracting-party-iuu-vessel-list and http://www.ccamlr.org/en/compliance/non-contracting-party-iuu-vessel-list.

117. FAO, Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas, FAO, Rome, 1993, pp. 7–37, <http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/14766/en> (30 September 2015).

118. DGM Miller, ‘Managing Fishing in the Sub-Antarctic’, Papers and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Tasmania, vol. 141, no. 1, 2007, pp. 121–40 and Table 1.

119. G Munro, A Van Houtte & R Willmann, ‘The Conservation and Management of Shared Fish Stocks: Legal and Economic Aspects’, FAO Fisheries Technical Paper, 465, 2004, pp. 61–4. <http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5438e/y5438e00.html> (5 April 2016).

120. Osinga, Science, Strategy and War.

121. Baird, ‘Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing’.

122. BW Davis, ‘The Legitimacy of CCAMLR’ in O Stokke & D Vidas (eds), Governing the Antarctic, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, pp. 233–45.

123. DS Calley, ‘Market Denial and International Fisheries Regulation: The Targeted and Effective Use of Trade Measures Against the Flag of Convenience Fishing Industry’, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, The Netherlands, 2012, p. 285.

124. Australian Institute of Criminology, ‘Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing’, <http://www.aic.gov.au/publications/current%20series/rpp/100-120/rpp109/08.html> (25 November 2015).

125. ‘Non-regulatory entities’ have no formal legal standing to shape, direct or otherwise control regulatory functions. They include non-governmental organisations (NGOs), citizen groups, academic associations and bodies with interests aligned to marine conservation.

126. H Österblom, J-B Jouffray, C Folke, B Crona, M Troell, A Merrie & J Rockström, ‘Transnational Corporations as ‘Keystone Actors’ in Marine Ecosystems’, PLoS ONE, vol. 10, no. 5, 2015, pp. 1–15 <http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchObject.action?uri=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0127533&representation=PDF> (25 November 2015).

127. Österblom et al, ‘Transnational Corporations as ‘Keystone Actors’ in Marine Ecosystems’.

128. M Young, Trading Fish, Saving Fish: The Interaction Between Regimes in International Law, Cambridge Studies in International and Comparative Law, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2013, p. 305 (408 pages in all).

129. E Miles, S Andresen, EM Carlin & A Underdal, Environmental Regime Effectiveness: Confronting Theory with Evidence, The MIT Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, 2001, p. 423.

130. Under CAMLR Convention Article XXIII, the Commission and SC-CAMLR are mandated to cooperate with other appropriate organisations that may contribute to CCAMLR's work. Furthermore, Lodge et al, ‘Recommended Best Practices for Regional Fisheries Management Organizations’ encourage regional fisheries organisations to be open to sanctioning long-term observer status for intergovernmental, non-governmental and other like organisations at their proceedings.

131. For example, a 2014 krill stakeholder workshop was hosted by the British Antarctic Survey (BAS), World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the Integrated Climate and Ecosystem Dynamics (ICED) Program. A 2006 expert workshop on bioregionalisation of the Southern Ocean sponsored by WWF, Peregrine and the Antarctic Climate and Ecosystems Cooperative Research Centre laid much of the ground for the current CCAMLR debate on Marine Protected Areas as a way to improve the meeting of CCAMLR's conservation objective outlined in Convention Article II, <http://awsassets.wwf.org.au/downloads/mo007_bioregionalisation_of_the_southern_ocean_8sep06.pdf> (25 November 2015).

132. For example, COLTO's ‘Rogues Gallery’.

133. At: <http://www.acap.aq/en/news/latest-news/1692-wwf-launches-its-international-smart-gear-competition-for-2014-to-reduce-bycatch-in-fisheries> (25 November 2015).

134. At: <http://www.ccamlr.org/en/news/2015/ccamlr-tag-return-lottery-2015-%E2%80%93-winners-announced> (25 November 2015).

135. For example, the krill harvesting company Aker BioMarine promotes a strong corporate social responsibility ethic. <http://www.akerbiomarine.com/about-us/corporate-social-responsibility/> (25 November 2015).

136. In particular, the International Southern Ocean Longline Fisheries Information Clearing House (ISOFISH) published a number of reports, between 1198 and 2000, outlining the involvement of various fishery interests in the trade and harvesting of Patagonian Toothfish. These reports led to the formation of COLTO. <http://www.colto.org/news-archive/isofish-reports/> (30 November 2015).

137. For Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) certification of the krill fishery, see <https://www.msc.org/track-a-fishery/fisheries-in-the-program/certified/southern-ocean/aker-biomarine-antarctic-krill/sustainability-notes/?searchterm=fisherycompliance> (25 November 2015).

138. See <http://www.abc.net.au/rn/legacy/features/balancingnature/philippines.htm> (25 November 2015).

139. Miller et al, ‘Managing Antarctic Marine Living Resources’.

140. ASOC is a global coalition of NGOs with more than 150 members in 40 countries worldwide. <http://www.asoc.org/> (25 November 2015).

141. JN Barnes, ‘The Emerging Convention on the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources: An Attempt to Meet the New Realities of Resource Exploitation in the Southern Ocean’ in JI Charney (eds), The New Nationalism and the Use of Common Spaces, Allanheld, Totawa, NJ; Osmun Publishers, 1982, pp. 239–87; JN Barnes, ‘The Future If Antarctica: Environmental Issues and the Role of NGOs’ in R Wolfrum (ed), Antarctic Challenges II: Conflicting Interests, Co-operation, Environmental Protection, Economic Development, Humboldt Publishing, Berlin, pp. 413–45.

142. As of 26 November, COLTO comprised 30 members and affiliated organisations. <http://www.colto.org/about-us/members/> (26 November 2015).

143. At: <http://www.ark-krill.org/> (25 November 2015).

144. At: <http://www.akerbiomarine.com/> (1 December 2015).

145. At: <https://www.msc.org/track-a-fishery/fisheries-in-the-program/certified/southern-ocean/aker-biomarine-antarctic-krill/aker-biomarine-antarctic-krill/?searchterm=aker-biomarine> (1 December 2015). At: <https://www.msc.org/newsroom/news/antarctic-krill-fishery-achieves-msc-certification> (1 December 2015).

146. From: <http://www.quoteswise.com/george-s-patton-quotes.html> (5 November 2015).

147. Richards, ‘Boyd's OODA Loop’.

148. Richards, ‘Boyd's OODA Loop’.

149. JH Albrecht, Understanding and Developing Adaptive Leadership During Pre-commissioning, A monograph, US Army School of Advanced Military Studies, Fort Leavenworth, KS, 2010. Cited in CW Richards, ‘Boyd's OODA Loop’.

150. Richards, ‘Boyd's OODA Loop’.

151. Boyd, ‘Conceptual Spiral’.

152. Richards, ‘Boyd's OODA Loop’.

153. Richards, ‘Boyd's OODA Loop’.

154. CW Richards, ‘A Swift, Elusive Sword: What If Sun Tzu and John Boyd Did a National Defence Review?’ PowerPoint Presentation, 2001, p. 46, <http://pptfilesearch.com/single/1310949/a-swift-elusive-sword> (1 September 2015). CW Richards, A Swift, Elusive Sword: What If Sun Tzu and John Boyd Did a National Defence Review? Center for Defence Information, Washington, DC, 2003, p. 92, <http://www.oss.net/dynamaster/file_archive/110722/5fe6ff43d0281f830ad36429e18fb3de/2011-07-21%20Swift%20Elusive%20Sword.pdf> (21 September 2015).

155. Osinga, Science, Strategy and War. From <http://www.quoteswise.com/george-s-patton-quotes.html> (25 September 2015).

156. Boyd, ‘Conceptual Spiral’.

157. Osinga, Science, Strategy and War.

158. Osinga, Science, Strategy and War.

159. G Wilson, JP Sullivan & H Kempfer, Fourth Generation Warfare (4GW): Tactics of the Weak Confound the Strong, 2003, p. 6, <http://www.military.com/NewContent?file=Wilson_090803> (1 October 2015).

160. CW Richards, ‘Conflict in the Years Ahead’, PowerPoint Presentation, Royal Norwegian Staff College, Bergen, p. 172, <http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=1&ved=0CB8QFjAAahUKEwjB0KaG3uvHAhXmr6YKHYYEA2U&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.projectwhitehorse.com%2Fpdfs%2F2.%2520conflict_in_the_years_ahead_v7.1.ppt&usg=AFQjCNGS3yNIFFoLdfPYoIqkiDG8eWisyQ> (21 September 2015).

161. These include development and finalisation of the 2009 FAO Port State Measures Agreement, <http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/166283/en> (30 September 2015), various regional plans of action (RPOA-IUU) to promote responsible fishing, including the combating of IUU fishing – MA Palma, ‘Combating IUU Fishing: International Legal Developments’ in Q Hanich & M Tsamenyi (eds), Navigating Pacific Fisheries, University of Wollongong, ANCORS, 2009, pp. 90–1, <http://ancors.uow.edu.au/images/publications/Navigating%20Pacific%20Fisheries%20Ebook/Chapter_3_Navigating_Pacific_Fisheries.pdf> (30 September 2015), and various United Nations General Assembly Resolutions (‘UNGA-Res.’), particularly UNGA-Res. 61/105 adopted in 2006, <http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N06/500/73/PDF/N0650073.pdf?OpenElement> (30 September 2015).

162. At: <http://www.ccamlr.org/en/document/publications/fish-sea-not-sky> (23 October 2015).

163. At: <http://www.ccamlr.org/en/document/publications/scientific-observers-manual-%E2%80%93-2011> (23 October 2015).

164. G Klein, Sources of Power: How People Make Decisions, MIT Press, Boston, 1999, p. 352.

165. Klein, Sources of Power: How People Make Decisions.

166. FAO, International Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing.

167. Johns, ‘Enhancing Responsible Fishing Practices in South East Asia’.

168. HSTF, Closing the Net.

169. Riddle, ‘Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing’.

170. McNulty, ‘Western and Central Pacific Fisheries and Opportunities for Transnational Organize Crime’.

171. MT Flynn, R Juergens & TL Cantrell, ‘Employing ISR – SOF Best Practices’, National Defence University, Institute for National Strategic Studies, Washington, DC, 2008, JFQ, Issue 50, pp. 56–61, <http://www.google.com.au/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&frm=1&source=web&cd=4&ved=0ahUKEwiNqtuItZbKAhViJqYKHTNACHoQFgguMAM&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dtic.mil%2Fcgi-bin%2FGetTRDoc%3FAD%3DADA516799&usg=AFQjCNHrW_Z12rRzTK-VdPFVgkBIQBnP7w&sig2=_ItUc70sSKudLQHeDbn7Cw&bvm=bv.110151844,d.dGY> (7 January 2016).

172. The MCS Network's primarily aims to: ‘improve the efficiency and effectiveness of fisheries-related MCS activities through enhanced cooperation, coordination, information collection and exchange among national organizations and institutions responsible for fisheries-related MCS’, <http://www.imcsnet.org/> (7 January 2016).

173. Australian Fisheries Management Authority (AFMA), National Compliance 2013-2015 Risk Assessment Methodology, AFMA, Canberra, 2013, p. 23 (p. 18), <http://www.afma.gov.au/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/AFMA-national-compliance-risk-methodology-2013-15.pdf> (30 September 2015).

174. R Hilborn, JJ Maguire, AM Parma & AA Rosenberg, ‘The Precautionary Approach and Risk Management: Can They Increase the Probability of Successes in Fishery Management?’, Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, vol. 58, no. 1, 2001, pp. 99–107, Published on the Web, 12 April 2011, <http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/abs/10.1139/f00-225> (5 October 2015).

175. ‘Morale’ is the confidence, enthusiasm and discipline of relevant responsible fishery stakeholders at a particular time.

176. This implies that pre-defined acceptable levels of risk trigger compliance-enforcement action. NL Sarti, ‘Development of Risk Assessment Procedures in National Fisheries Compliance Programs’, Fisheries Research and Development Corporation, Western Australia, Project No. 2002/085, 2006, p. 36 (Table 1, p. 20), <http://frdc.com.au/research/Documents/Final_reports/2002-085-DLD.pdf> (14 October 2015).

177. Boyd, ‘Conceptual Spiral’.

178. DJ Puchala, ‘Of Pirates and Terrorists: What Experience and History Teach’, Contemporary Security Policy, vol. 26, no. 1, 2005, pp. 1–24, doi:10.1080/13523260500116059, <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/13523260500116059> (30 September 2015).

179. Tipping points are a substantial challenge for ocean governance due to their inherent uncertainty, potential for rapid and large system change, and potential cascading effects on human well-being. See V Galaz, H Ősterblom, Ő Bodin & B Crona, ‘Global Networks and Global Change-Induced Tipping Points’, International Environmental Agreements, 2014, <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269358511_Global_networks_and_global_change-induced_tipping_points> (article available at: link.springer.com) (30 September 2015).

180. Osinga, Science, Strategy and War, pp. 197–8.

181. A ‘subject proponent’ is one at which OODA actions are directed.

182. Osinga, Science, Strategy and War, p. 212.

183. R McCusker, ‘Transnational Crime in the Pacific Islands: Real or Apparent Danger?’, Trends & Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice, vol. 308, 2006, pp. 3–4, <http://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/publications/tandi_pdf/tandi308.pdf> (22 September 2015).

184. CB Realuyo, It's All about the Money: Advancing Anti-money Laundering Efforts in the U.S. and Mexico to Combat Transnational Organized Crime, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, Mexico Institute, 2012, pp. 1–32, <https://www.wilsoncenter.org/sites/default/files/Realuyo_U.S.-Mexico_Money_Laundering_0.pdf> (22 September 2015). RT Naylor, ‘Follow-the-Money Methods in Crime Control Policy’ in ME Beare (ed), Critical Reflections on Transnational Organized Crime, Money Laundering and Corruption, University of Toronto Press Incorporated, Toronto, 2003, pp. 256–90.

185. ‘Situational heritage’ amounts to the past/prevailing circumstances associated with a particular IUU activity, while ‘cultural heritage’ comprises the norms/standards of the cultural mindset of those prosecuting the activity. As noted, the latter may be the product of a lack of respect for authority, as well as a low aversion to risk. Adapted from: Osinga, Science, Strategy and War, pp. 236–7.

186. A D’Andrea, ‘The “Genuine Link” Concept in Responsible Fisheries: Legal Aspects and Recent Developments’, FAO Legal Papers Online, No. 61, 2006, pp. 1–28, <http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/legal/docs/lpo61.pdf> (1 December 2015).

187. Anon., ‘Illegal Fishing Prosecutions ‘a Giant Step Forward’’, New Zealand Herald, Auckland, 21 June 2015, <http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11468851> (22 September 2015). Anon., IUU Fishing: Spain Announces €11 Million Penalties Against Galicia Syndicate, MercoPress, Montevideo, 22 September 2015, <http://en.mercopress.com/2015/06/22/iuu-fishing-spain-announces-11-million-penalties-against-galicia-syndicate> (22 September 2015). The latter initiative was part of some €17.84 million in fines collected during Operation Sparrow under the Spanish reforms to Law 3/2001 of 26 March 2001 (State Marine Fisheries) by Law 33/2014. The fines resulted from 48 administrative fractions, of which 44 were serious. Including the Kunlun in the CCAMLR IUU Listed Vessel (http://www.ccamlr.org/en/compliance/non-contracting-party-iuu-vessel-list) meant that its various infringements were classed as ‘serious’ under European Community Regulation 1005/2008 (‘Combating IUU Fishing and Maritime of Law of the State Fisheries’), <http://www.magrama.gob.es/en/prensa/151211propuestaresolucionsancionadoraoperacionsparrow_tcm11-405385_noticia.pdf> (11 January 2016).

188. See <http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N95/274/67/PDF/N9527467.pdf?OpenElement> (22 September 2015).

189. JR Ruíz García, ‘Tributación de la empresa pesquera’, Cuadernos de Derecho Pesquero, Fundación Pedro Barrié de la Maza, 2000, pp. 281–90.

190. Sun Tzu, The Art of War.

191. C Pala, ‘Forbidden Catch’, New Zealand Geographic, Issue 135, September–October 2015, pp. 66–81 (p. 81), <https://www.nzgeographic.co.nz/archives/issue-135/toothfish> (28 September 2015).

192. MT Gastner & B Oborny, ‘The Geometry of Percolation Fronts in Two Dimensional Lattices with Spatially Varying Densities’, New Journal of Physics, 2012, vol. 14, pp. 1–14, <http://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1367-2630/14/10/103019/pdf> (23 November 2015).

193. P Thiel & B Masters, ‘Zero to One: Notes on Start-ups or How to Build the Future’, Virgin Digital, 2014, pp. 1–224.

194. See <http://www.tomsitpro.com/articles/ibm-red-cell-cybercrime-fraud-security,1-1809.html#ibm-red-cell-cybercrime-fraud-security%2C1-1809.html?&_suid=1448246769181013056440207790115> and <http://redteamjournal.com/papers/A%20Short%20Introduction%20to%20Red%20Teaming%20(1dot0).pdf> (23 November 2015).