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Abstract:
Education (formal education, schooling) is generally understood as a resource which enables development and leads to the enjoyment of other human rights. In this article, relationships between indigenous education, development and rights are explored. When development is defined as a human right, it aims at improving human rights in general and should not negatively impact them. However in practice, education may produce conflicts in the realisation of indigenous peoples’ individual and collective rights, especially their linguistic and cultural rights, since cultural and linguistic assimilation are often the reported outcomes of indigenous education. This article uses Bolivia as a case study. Since 1994, indigenous peoples’ languages and cultures have to some extent been recognised in the Bolivian education law. Despite this, the implementation of the law has been slow and discontinuous. Arguably, such implementation has not been consistent with indigenous peoples’ cultural and linguistic rights; therefore indigenous peoples’ right to education has not been fully implemented, neither has it produced the expected development or empowerment results.
Notes
1 On education as a duty and the compulsory nature of this right, see, e.g., M Mustaniemi-Laakso, “Core Content: Free and Compulsory Primary Education”, in A Lundström Sarelin, The Right to Education from a Developing Country Perspective, KIOS Thematical Reports 2006:3 (Finnish NGO Foundation for Human Rights, Helsinki, 2006), 6–8.
2 See G Rist, The History of Development: From Western Origins to Global Faith (Zed Books, London, 2002).
3 United Nations Declaration on the Right to Development. UN General Assembly (4 December 1986) UN Doc A/RES/41/128.
4 UN Declaration on the Right to Development: article 1(2).
5 M Salomon and A Sengupta, The Right to Development: Obligations of States and the Rights of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Minority Rights Group, Issues Paper. (Minority Rights Group, London, 2003); and United Nations Declaration on the Right to Development. UN General Assembly (4 December 1986) UN Doc A/RES/41/128: articles 1 and 6.
6 A Sengupta, “On the Theory and Practise of the Right to Development”. (2002) 24 Human Rights Quarterly, at 869.
7 T Kiilakoski, “Koululaitos ja toiveet kehityksestä”, in T Kiilakoski, T Tomperi and M Vuorikoski (eds), Kenen kasvatus? Kriittinen pedagogiikka ja toisinkasvatuksen mahdollisuus (Vastapaino, Tampere, 2005), 139–65.
8 See UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights “General Comment No 13: The Right to Education (article 13 of the covenant)”, Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (8 December 1999) UN Doc E/C.12/1999/10.
9 UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights “General Comment No 13: The Right to Education (article 13 of the covenant)”, Implementation of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (8 December 1999) UN Doc E/C.12/1999/10; and UN Human Rights Council “Expert Mechanism Advice No 1 (2009) on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples to Education”(31 August 2009) UN Doc A/HRC/12/33.
10 ILO Convention No 169 Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in Independent Countries (27 June 1989): articles 26–31; and the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2 October 2007) UN Doc A/RES/61/295: articles 8, 11, 13–15.
11 Committee on the Rights of the Child, General Comment No 11: Indigenous Children and their Rights under the Convention (12 February 2009) CRC/C/GC/11, para 57.
12 K Tomaševski Removing Obstacles in the Way of the Right to Education. Right to Education Primers No 1. (Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, and Sida, Gothenburg, 2001), 13.
13 UNICEF and UNESCO, A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education for All: A Framework for the Realization of Children's Right to Education and Rights within Education (UNICEF and UNESCO, New York and Paris, 2007), 20.
14 World Conference on Human Rights, “Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action” (25 June 1993) UN Doc A/CONF.157/24, para 5.
15 K Tomaševski, Removing Obstacles in the Way of the Right to Education, Right to Education Primers No 1 (Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, and Sida, Gothenburg, 2001), 33.
16 UNICEF and UNESCO, A Human Rights-Based Approach to Education for All: A Framework for the Realization of Children's Right to Education and Rights within Education (UNICEF and UNESCO, New York and Paris, 2007), 20–21.
17 LE López, “‘Del dicho al hecho …’ Desfases crecientes entre políticas y practicas en la educación intercultural bilingüe en América Latina”, (2013) 7 (9) Página y signos. Revista de lingüística y literatura, 54–55 (Cochabamba: Carrera de Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza de Lenguas, Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad Mayor de San Simón); and CONAMAQ, CSUTCB, CIDOB, APG, CSCB, FNMCB-BS, CEAM, CEPOG, CENAQ y CEA, Por una Educación Indígena Originaria: Hacia la autodeterminación ideológica, política, territorial y sociocultural (CONAMAQ et al, Santa Cruz, 2004).
18 Even in this aspect, considerable problems still exist and educational services for indigenous peoples are in general far below the recommended minimum standards in their own countries. See UN Commission on Human Rights, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, Rodolfo Stavenhagen” (6 January 2005) UN Doc E/CN.4/2005/88, para 27.
19 UN Commission on Human Rights, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, Rodolfo Stavenhagen” (6 January 2005) UN Doc E/CN.4/2005/88, para 15.
20 UN Commission on Human Rights, “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, Rodolfo Stavenhagen” (6 January 2005) UN Doc E/CN.4/2005/88, para 42.
21 LT Smith, Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (Zed Books, London and University of Otago Press, Dunedin, 2001).
22 UN Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues, “Forms of Education of Indigenous Children as Crimes against Humanity”. Expert paper submitted by L-A Baer. Prepared in cooperation with O-H Magga, R Dunbar and T Skutnabb-Kangas (8 February 2008), UN Doc E/C.19/2008/7, paras 2–7, 25 and 34. See also UNESCO, Mother Tongue Matters: Local Language as a Key to Effective Learning (UNESCO, Paris, 2008); and LE López, Reaching the Unreached: Indigenous Intercultural Bilingual Education in Latin America. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010, Reaching the Marginalized, UNESCO, 2010/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/29, 38–40.
23 This is the number of indigenous languages recognised as official languages in the 2009 Constitution. Public discourse in Bolivia has also held that the same number of indigenous peoples exist. The Constitution of Bolivia of 2009, article 5(I).
24 Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas, 2001.
25 Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Bolivia, “Características de población y vivienda. Censo Nacional de Población y Vivienda 2012”. Available at http://www.censosbolivia.bo/ (accessed 23 October 2013), and Periódico Digital PIEB, “Reflexiones en torno a los resultados del censo”, Programa de Investigación Estratégica en Bolivia, 8 August 2013. Available at http://www.pieb.com.bo (accessed 23 October 2013).
26 See analysis concerning the formulations of the national census questions in 1992 and 2001 and the results of indigenous self-identification and languages spoken in Bolivia according to a survey “Barómetro de las Américas” made in Bolivia in 2012: D Moreno, “Los bolivianos y sus identidades” in Ciudadanía and LAPOP, Cultura política de la democracia en Bolivia, 2012: Hacia la igualdad de oportunidades (Ciudadanía and LAPOP, Cochabamba, 2012), 238–63.
27 I Sichra, “Estado plurinacional – sociedad plurilingüe: ¿Solamente una ecuación simbólica?” (2013) 7 (9) Página y signos. Revista de lingüística y literatura, at 82–88 (Cochabamba: Carrera de Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza de Lenguas, Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad Mayor de San Simón).
28 I Sachdev, D Arnold and J Yapita, “Indigenous Identity and Language: Some Considerations from Bolivia and Canada” (2006) 1 Birkbeck Studies in Applied Linguistics 108–11, based on an analysis made on the census results of the years 1976, 1992 and 2001 concerning the speakers of indigenous languages in Bolivia and self-identification as indigenous. They also conduct a critical analysis of the linguistic policy applied in the Education Reform during 1994–2004, and an empirical study of self-identification and languages spoken among Aymara population in Tiwanaku, Bolivia.
29 “I certainly can do it.”
30 According to information provided by the Bolivian Ministry of Education available at http://www.minedu.gov.bo/minedu/pna/indice.html (accessed 9 June 2010). This literacy campaign was financed and designed by the Cuban state. It had an important impact by offering many Bolivians the opportunity to learn to read and write, but it was also criticised since the majority of persons who participated were taught in Spanish even though their mother tongues were indigenous languages.
31 Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, Caracteristicas de poblacion y vivienda, Censo Nacional de Poblacion y Vivienda 2012, 11–15. Available at http://www.censosbolivia.bo/ (accessed 23 October 2013).
32 “Día del Maestro: Morales destaca que se destina a la educación el 8.7% del PIB”, La Opinion 7 June 2014, 5a.
33 J Hays, “Educational Rights for Indigenous Communities in Botswana and Namibia” (2011) 15 (1) The International Journal of Human Rights, at 128 and 137; and LE López, Reaching the Unreached: Indigenous Intercultural Bilingual Education in Latin America. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010, Reaching the Marginalized, UNESCO, 2010/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/29.
34 R Choque Canqui and C Quispe Quispe, Educación indígenal en Bolivia: Un siglo de ensayos educativos y resistencias patronales (Unidad de Investigaciones Históricas UNIH-PAKAXA, La Paz, 2006).
35 UNICEF, PROCESO, Teko Guaraní and APG. Tataendi. El fuego que nunca se apaga: Campaña de alfabetización en guaraní (UNICEF, PROCESO, Teko Guaraní and APG, Santa Cruz, 1994).
36 CONAMAQ, CSUTCB, CIDOB, APG, CSCB, FNMCB-BS, CEAM, CEPOG, CENAQ y CEA, Por una Educación Indígena Originaria: Hacia la autodeterminación ideológica, política, territorial y sociocultural (CONAMAQ et al) Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad Mayor de San Simón, 2004), 7 and 50.
37 T Saaresranta, Educación indígena originaria campesina: perspectivas de la educación intracultural (Fundación PIEB, La Paz, 2011).
38 See, e.g., LE López, “‘Del dicho al hecho …’ Desfases crecientes entre políticas y practicas en la educación intercultural bilingüe en América Latina” (2013) 7 (9) Página y signos. Revista de lingüística y literatura, 11–78 (Cochabamba: Carrera de Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza de Lenguas, Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad Mayor de San Simón); and T Saaresranta, and M Hinojosa Román, Derechos de los pueblos indígena originarios campesinos de Cochabamba: Entre la ley y la realidad (Componente de Transversalización de Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas del Ministerio de la Presidencia and Fundación PIEB, La Paz, 2009).
39 P Montellano and Z Ramos, Luces y sombras de la educación secundaria rural: Estudio de un colegio en Chuquisaca (Fundación PIEB, La Paz, 2011), 139–44; LE López, Reaching the Unreached: Indigenous Intercultural Bilingual Education in Latin America. Paper commissioned for the EFA Global Monitoring Report 2010, Reaching the Marginalized, UNESCO, 2010/ED/EFA/MRT/PI/29, 25–26; and T Saaresranta, Educación indígena originaria campesina: perspectivas de la educación intracultural (Fundación PIEB, La Paz, 2011), 67 and 95–96.
40 Ley de Reforma Educativa, Ley No 1565 de 7 de julio de 1994.
41 Even though these programmes have been labelled as “intercultural”, the concept of interculturality as such goes beyond this recognition of diversity (multiculturalism). Interculturality questions the power relations between the dominant and non-dominant groups, and aims at transforming the society by constructing horizontal and inclusive forms and models for knowledge, education, group relations etc. See, e.g., C Walsh, “(De)colonialidad e interculturalidad epistémica: política, ciencia y sociedad de otro modo”, in JL Saavedra (ed), Educación superior, interculturalidad y descolonización (Fundación PIEB and Comité Ejecutivo de la Universidad Boliviana, La Paz, 2007), 215–28. This type of interculturality has not been part of the so-called IBE models implemented as part of public policies in Latin America.
42 Ley de Reforma Educativa, Ley No 1565 de 7 de julio de 1994: article 1(5).
43 Decreto Supremo 23950 de Organización Curricular de la Reforma Educativa, 1 de febrero de 1995: articles 10–11. The law is rather general and declaratory in nature, and is therefore complemented by four supreme decrees which further regulate and specify its contents.
44 Decreto Supremo 23950 de Organización Curricular de la Reforma Educativa, 1 de febrero de 1995: article 33.
45 Ley de Reforma Educativa: article 8(4) and Decreto Supremo 23950: article 8.
46 The President Evo Morales’ party MAS gained the majority of votes in two consecutive elections, in 2005 and 2009.
47 Adopted into domestic law in Bolivia by Ley No 3760 de 7 de noviembre de 2007.
48 Constitución Política del Estado, entered into force 7 February 2009.
49 Chapter four of the Constitution “The Rights of indigenous Peoples and Nations”.
50 Ley Marco de Autonomías y Descentralización Andrés Ibáñez, Ley No 031 de 19 de julio de 2010.
51 Ley Contra el Racismo y Toda Forma de Discriminación, Ley No 045 de 8 de octubre 2010.
52 Ley de la Educación “Avelino Siñani – Elizardo Pérez”, Ley No 070 de 20 de diciembre de 2010. This law carries the names of two Bolivian pioneers of indigenous schooling, who in the 1930s created the first indigenous teacher training center.
53 Ley General de Derechos y Políticas Lingüísticas, Ley No 269, 2 August 2012.
54 Articles 78(II), 79, 89(II) and 83 of the Constitution; and articles 1–5 of the Education Law Avelino Siñani – Elizardo Pérez.
55 Education Law Avelino Siñani – Elizardo Pérez: article 6(I–II).
56 Education Law Avelino Siñani – Elizardo Pérez: article 69.
57 Education Law Avelino Siñani – Elizardo Pérez: article 7.
58 Chapter Four: Languages in the Plurinational Education System.
59 General Law of Linguistic Rights and Policies: articles 6(1) and 12.
60 General Law of Linguistic Rights and Policies: article 12(II).
61 General Law of Linguistic Rights and Policies: article 12(III).
62 General Law of Linguistic Rights and Policies: article 9.
63 General Law of Linguistic Rights and Policies, article 10(II).
64 General Law of Linguistic Rights and Policies, first transitory provision.
65 Education Law Avelino Siñani – Elizardo Pérez: article 4.
66 Ministerio de Planificación del Desarrollo, Plan Nacional de Desarrollo: Bolivia Digna, Soberana, Productiva y Democrática para Vivir Bien. Lineamientos Estratégicos 2006. The implementation of the National Development Plan was extended until 2014.
67 For example in Y Farah and L. Vasapollo (eds), Vivir bien; ¿Paradigma no capitalista? (CIDES-UMSA, La Paz, 2011); and F Huanacuni Mamani, Vivir Bien/Buen Vivir: Filosofía, políticas, estratégias y experiencias regionales, 4th edn (Instituto Internacional de Integración III-CAB, La Paz, 2010).
68 Annual Ministerial Review of the Economic and Social Council, “Fulfilment of the Millennium Development Goals: National Voluntary Presentation of the Report of Bolivia” (15 June 2009) UN Doc E/2009/96 at 4.
69 Aymara, Quechua and Guaraní are the three most widely spoken indigenous languages in Bolivia.
70 CONAMAQ, CSUTCB, CIDOB, APG, CSCB, FNMCB-BS, CEAM, CEPOG, CENAQ y CEA, Por una Educación Indígena Originaria: Hacia la autodeterminación ideológica, política, territorial y sociocultural (CONAMAQ et al, Santa Cruz, 2004), 21.
71 N Nucinkis, “La EIB en Bolivia”, in LE López and C Rojas (eds), La EIB en América Latina bajo examen (Banco Mundial, GTZ and Plural Editores, La Paz, 2006), 30–40. The real percentage of the implementation of the EIB was however much lower, since a significant percentage of teachers working at these schools did not speak the local indigenous language, nor had the training to teach in these languages.
72 Several studies confirm this, e.g. N Nucinkis, “La EIB en Bolivia”, in LE López and C Rojas (eds), La EIB en América Latina bajo examen (Banco Mundial, GTZ and Plural Editores, La Paz, 2006), pp. 25–110. CONAMAQ, CSUTCB, CIDOB, APG, CSCB, FNMCB-BS, CEAM, CEPOG, CENAQ y CEA, Por una Educación Indígena Originaria: Hacia la autodeterminación ideológica, política, territorial y sociocultural (CONAMAQ et al, Santa Cruz, 2004); M Contreras and ML Talavera Simoni, The Bolivian Education Reform 1992–2002: Case Studies in Large Scale Education Reform. Country Studies Education Reform and Management Publication Series, vol II, No 2 (The World Bank, Washington DC, 2003),.
73 See in N Nucinkis, “La EIB en Bolivia”, in LE López and C Rojas (eds), La EIB en América Latina bajo examen (Banco Mundial, GTZ and Plural Editores, La Paz, 2006), 51–53.
74 M Contreras and ML Talavera Simoni, The Bolivian Education Reform 1992–2002: Case Studies in Large Scale Education Reform. Country Studies Education Reform and Management Publication Series, vol II, No 2 (The World Bank, Washington DC, 2003),, at 38.
75 Y Gutierrez and M Fernández, Niñas (des)educadas: Entre la escuela rural y los saberes del ayllu (Fundación PIEB, La Paz, 2011); T Saaresranta, Educación indígena originaria campesina: perspectivas de la educación intracultural (Fundación PIEB, La Paz, 2011); and interview with Noemi Ramirez (teacher, Cochabamba, 11 May 2010).
76 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, “Concluding Observations: The Plurinational State of Bolivia”. Consideration of Reports Submitted by States parties under Article 44 of the Convention (2 October 2009) UN Doc CRC/C/BOL/CO/4, para 85.
77 Education Law Avelino Siñani – Elizardo Pérez: Disposición abrogatoria and Disposiciones finales: Primera. By June 2014, three and a half years after the approval of the Education Law, the new Supreme Decrees to regulate the implementation of the law had not been passed, mainly because of the opposition of some sectors of the teachers unions which have strong influence in the Ministry of Education.
78 Ministerio de Educación. Curriculo Base del Sistema Educativo Plurinacional: Curriculo Subsistema de Educación Regular. Serie currículo, documento de trabajo (Ministerio de Educación, La Paz, 2012).
79 See, e.g., Centro de Culturas Originarias Kawsay, Methodology with Indigenous Identity: Education that Makes a Difference (Centro de Culturas Originarias Kawsay, Cochabamba, 2006).
80 The school year in Bolivia starts in February and ends in November.
81 Ministerio de Educación, Resolución Ministerial No 001/2013 Normas Generales para la Gestion Educativa 2013: article 31(f).
82 Ministerio de Educación, Resolución Ministerial No 001/2014 Normas Generales para la Gestion Educativa 2014: article 29.
83 Ministerio de Educación, Resolución Ministerial No 001/2014 Normas Generales para la Gestion Educativa 2014: article 107.
84 Ministerio de Educación, Sistema Educativo Plurinacional: Educación Primaria Comunitaria Vocacional. Programa de Estudio: Primer Año. Serie currículo, documento de trabajo (Ministerio de Educación, La Paz, 2012), 15.
85 Ministerio de Educación. Curriculo base del Sistema Educativo Plurinacional: Curriculo Subsistema de Educación Regular. Serie currículo, documento de trabajo. (Ministerio de Educación, La Paz, 2012), 58.
86 Ministerio de Educación, Resolución Ministerial No 001/2014 Normas Generales para la Gestion Educativa 2014: articles 45, 109, 110, 114 and 115.
87 LE López, “‘Del dicho al hecho …’ Desfases crecientes entre políticas y practicas en la educación intercultural bilingüe en América Latina” (2013) 7 (9) Página y signos. Revista de lingüística y literatura, 62–68 (Cochabamba: Carrera de Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza de Lenguas, Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad Mayor de San Simón).
88 Interview of Miguel Llora, General Secretary of the Federation of Urban Teachers of Cochabamba. In the newspaper Opinión, “Brecha entre colegio y universidad será mayor”, 2 May 2014, 8a (author's translation).
89 T Saaresranta, Educación indígena originaria campesina: perspectivas de la educación intracultural (Fundación PIEB, La Paz, 2011), 56–60; and A Zambrana Balladares, Papawan Khuska Wiñaspa. Socialización de niños quechuas en torno a la producción de papa (UMSS, Plural Editores and PROEIB Andes, La Paz, 2008), 28–29.
90 In the newspaper Los Tiempos, “En contra de la ley 070: Maestros salieron a mercados”, 11 May 2014, A7.
91 LE López, “‘Del dicho al hecho …’ Desfases crecientes entre políticas y practicas en la educación intercultural bilingüe en América Latina” (2013) 7 (9) Página y signos. Revista de lingüística y literatura, 19, 58–59 (Cochabamba: Carrera de Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza de Lenguas, Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad Mayor de San Simón).
92 UN Human Rights Council “Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms of Indigenous People, Rodolfo Stavenhagen: Mission to Bolivia”, Promotion and Protection of All Human Rights, Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, Including the Right to Development (18 February 2009) UN Doc A/HRC/11/11, para 62.
93 T Saaresranta, “Jaihuayco (zona sur de Cochabamba) Transiciones del Vivir Bien: migraciones y tejidos urbano – rurales”, in R Mamani Pacasi, W Molina Argandoña, F Chirino Ortiz and T Saaresranta (eds), Vivir Bien significados y representaciones desde la vida cotidiana. Cuatro Miradas: Jesús de Machaca (La Paz), San Ignacio de Mojos (Beni), La Guardia (Santa Cruz) y zona sur Cochabamba (Fundación PIEB, La Paz, 2012), at 172.
94 Education Law Avelino Siñani – Elizardo Pérez: articles 9–14.
95 At the moment the implementation of 14 years of compulsory education is not possible, since the school network (especially pre-school and secondary education) does not cover the whole country.
96 CONAMAQ, CSUTCB, CIDOB, APG, CSCB, FNMCB-BS, CEAM, CEPOG, CENAQ y CEA, Por una Educación Indígena Originaria: Hacia la autodeterminación ideológica, política, territorial y sociocultural (CONAMAQ et al, Santa Cruz, 2004), 54–56.
97 See the definitions concerning the different models in T Skutnabb-Kangas, and T McCarty, “Key Concepts in Bilingual Education: Ideological, Historical, Epistemological, and Empirical Foundations”, in J Cummins and N Hornberger (eds), Bilingual Education, Encyclopedia of Language and Education, vol 5, 2nd edn (Springer, New York, 2008), 3–17; and the interpretations of these models in Latin-America in LE López, “‘Del dicho al hecho …’ Desfases crecientes entre políticas y practicas en la educación intercultural bilingüe en América Latina” (2013) 7 (9) Página y signos. Revista de lingüística y literatura, 26–28 (Cochabamba: Carrera de Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza de Lenguas, Facultad de Humanidades y Ciencias de la Educación, Universidad Mayor de San Simón).
98 Education Law Avelino Siñani – Elizardo Pérez: article 2(V). It reads: “The rights of mothers and fathers: The right of mothers and fathers to choose the best suitable education for their children is respected” (author's translation from Spanish).
99 The negative effects of the lack of quality education is affirmed for example in: UN Human Rights Council “Expert Mechanism Advice No 1 (2009) on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples to Education”(31 August 2009) UN Doc A/HRC/12/33.