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ABSTRACT
This article examines how Christian activists in Norway engage with asylum seekers and how these activists perceive suggested guidelines for missionary work. Using a case study approach, this article shows how missionaries act as agents of change: for example by hastening conversions or by offering diaconal services that may eventually lead to conversions. Furthermore, I will argue that even though missionaries do not specifically use the language of Article 18 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, they are nevertheless influenced by discussions of such rights. This case study shows how specific worldviews and images of asylum seekers shape missionaries' priorities and strategies, as well as their attitudes to mission guidelines. I argue that further studies on Christian proselytisation and human rights need to take into account religious worldviews, and use the discussion of ethics as a possible common ground for debates on missionary work within a human rights framework.
Notes
1 See Tore Lindholm, ‘The Normative Core of the Human Rights to Freedom of Religion or Belief’ in Hans Gravaas et al. (eds), Freedom of Religion and Christian Mission (Regnum Books, Oxford 2015).
2 Investigations of how asylum seekers respond to missionary activities and/or strive to maintain their religion fall outside of the scope of this article. Further empirical studies of the subject are needed.
3 On legal cases, see Lindholm (n 1).
4 I searched in Retriever’s media base, A-text, using: asyl* AND (konvert* or misjon*) from 1 January 2002 till 10 March 2014. For further information on Norwegian missionary organisations, see Frank-Ole Thoresen, Medlemsstatistikk for Digni og NORME, report (Oslo 2014), <http://digni.no/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Medlemsstatsitikk-fra-Digni-og-NORME-2014-1.pdf> (accessed 10 October 2015).
5 The present article analyses the work of missionaries, though it is beyond the scope of this article to explore how this work is represented in the media.
6 Particular dates or periods are listed in footnotes below as reference. However, I would like to stress that the information is double-checked throughout the fieldwork period in accordance with the social-anthropological method.
7 Nadia Marzouki and Oliver Roy, Religious Conversions in the Mediterranean World (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013).
8 See, Melani McAlister, ‘What Would Jesus Do? Evangelicals and the Iraq War’ in David Ryan and Patrick Kiely (eds), America and Iraq: Policy Making, Intervention and Regional Politics (Routledge, 2009).
9 For a presentation of older missionary organisations in Norway, see Olav G Myklebust, Norsk Håndbok for Misjon (Egede-Instituttet, 1947). Many of these missionary organisations still exist, but have merged, changed names or are no longer easily recognised as missionary bodies. Most of them combine missionary outreach with development work.
10 The letter is written by a Norwegian pastor in a missionary organisation. Details of publication are withheld to protect the writer's identity.
11 Ronald M Synnes, Kristne migrantmenigheter i Oslo (KIFO Stiftelsen Kirkeforskning, Oslo KIFO-report 2012:1).
12 Susanne Søholt and Arne Holm, Desentraliserte asylmottak og bosetting (Norsk institutt for by- og regionforskning, Oslo NIBR-report 2010:13); see also Marko Valenta and Berit Berg (eds), Asylsøker: I velferdstatens venterom (Universitetsforlaget, 2012).
13 I interviewed executive officers from the Immigration Appeals Board (UNE) (Oslo, 21 May 2014). They estimated that from 2001 to 2014 approximately 750 appeals had listed recent conversion to Christianity. Most of the applicants were Muslims with Iranian or Afghan backgrounds (approx. 700). Other countries mentioned were Algeria, Bangladesh, Iraq, Jordan, Kosovo, Lebanon, Morocco, Nigeria, Somalia, and Uzbekistan. The officers underlined that they do not have proper statistics; the list of countries of origin is not complete, and numbers given show only those who list recent conversion as new information in their appeals. Update from UNE see also <http://www.une.no/no/Praksis2/Notater/Anforsler-om-forfolgelse-pa-grunn-av-religion/#Tilh%C3%B8righet> (accessed 25 May 2014).
14 Examples of newspaper headlines: ‘Ble kristen, trues på livet [Became a Christian, receiving death threats]’ Aftenposten (Bergen, 11 September 2011) 9; ‘Sogneprest tilbyr kirkeasyl til kristne iranere [Minister offers church asylum to Christian Iranians]’ Dagen (Bergen, 16 August 2012) 29; ‘Har døpt 200 asylsøkere [Has baptised 200 asylum seekers]’ Aftenposten (Oslo, 28 June 2007) 8; ‘Pinsekirken kaprer muslimske asylsøkere [Pentecostal church captures Muslim asylum seekers]’ Aftenposten (Oslo, 27 August 2000) 4.
15 Utlendings direktoratet (Norwegian Directorate of Immigration), circular providing information about the requirements for accommodation in ordinary, national reception centres (updated 10 March 2014): <https://www.udiregelverk.no/no/rettskilder/udi-rundskriv/rs-2008-031/> (accessed 20 October 2015). Many reception centres are run by private organisations. These have similar guidelines.
16 The Oslo Coalition on Freedom of Religion or Belief, Missionary Activities and Human Rights: Recommended Ground Rules for Missionary Activities, booklet (Oslo, 2009).
17 Reference information withheld to protect the anonymity of the group.
18 Quotes from 13 May 2014; 19 May 2014; 23 May 2014, 3 and 17 June 2014.
19 Sermon 23 May 2014.
20 Quotes from 13 May 2014; 27 May 2014; 10 June 2014.
21 Interview 3 June 2014.
22 Interview 3 June 2014.
23 The reasons why were unclear. Attitudes to mission towards minors are worth further in-depth studies.
24 Interview 3 June 2014.
25 Interview 29 September 2014.
26 Mark (16:15), The Bible (New King James Version, Thomas Nelson 1982). Interview with group of leaders, 30 September 2014.
27 Conversations during fieldwork 2014. The last quote from 27 June 2014.
28 The congregation leadership structure is based on a biblical model with a leadership council of trusted, male leaders, called elders.
29 It is not uncommon for congregations such as this one to split because of language differences. For an elaboration of such processes, see Pål Repstad, ‘Mellom karisma og kontor. Pinselederei det moderne Norge’ in Berit Thorbjørnsrud (ed), Religiøse ledere, makt og avmakt (Universitetsforlaget, 2012) 116.
30 Conversation 27 June 2014.
31 Conversations with members, including minibus drivers from the congregation.
32 Interview 29 September 2014.
33 Like the Latter-day Saints, the Church of Norway cannot be presented with a fictional name. To protect anonymity I have left out all personal names and names of parishes.
34 Statistisk Sentralbyrå, ‘Den norske kirke, 2014’ (published 6 May 2015), <www.ssb.no/kultur-og-fritid/statistikker/kirke_kostra> (accessed 16 November 2015).
35 Interview at UNE (n 13).
36 See for example Tor Jørgensen, bishop, ‘Kirken og konvertittene [The Church and the converts]’ Helgeland Arbeiderblad (Mosjøen, 3 March 2014) 10.
37 Norges Kristne Råd, ‘Dåp av asylsøkere’ <http://www.norgeskristnerad.no/index.cfm?id=142309> (accessed 13 November 2015). The Christian Council of Norway is an umbrella organisation for a great number of the Norwegian denominations and organisations.
38 In addition, I had a number of informal conversations in local congregations.
39 Interviews between April and September 2014.
40 Interview 8 September 2014.
41 Matthew (25:35), The Bible (n 26).
42 Interview with employee of church organisations 9 and 30 April 2014.
43 The regulation was also known in the other groups, but as shown, approval of the regulation varied.
44 Interview 30 June 2014.
45 Interview 26 June 2014.
46 Interview quoted in note 44, 30 June 2014.
47 Interview 28 April 2014.
48 The expression “some time” is a translation from Norwegian: “over noe tid”. The amount of time is not specified. Den norske kirke, Bispemøtet BM 14/16, Dåp av asylsøkere. En veiledning fra bispemøtet (Baptism of asylum seekers. A guidance from the Bishops’ Council), booklet (Oslo, 2016). Statements from 2014, see https://kirken.no/globalassets/kirken.no/bispemotet/2014/dokumenter/protokolleruttalelser/bispemoetet_februar_2014_uttalelse_konvertitter.pdf > [case BM5/14] (accessed 16 November 2015).
49 Matthew (28:19), The Bible (n 26).
50 Interview 27 June 2014.
51 It is impossible to write about Mormons under a fictitious name, but I have not disclosed particular congregations or personal names. Their church is not recognised as Christian by other churches, partly due to divergent teaching about the Trinity.
52 The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Doctrine and Covenants, <https://www.lds.org/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/66?lang=eng> (accessed 16 November 2015).
53 Conversation 7 August 2014.
54 Interview 20 May 2014.
55 Conversation 24 May 2014.
56 Marzouki and Roy (n 7).
57 To what extent asylum seekers feel that they get diaconal care without evangelisation is beyond the scope of this article.
58 See references in Lindholm (n 1).
59 As an example, I refer to the member of the Jesus Group who insisted on doing exorcism in his job as a hospital employee. In a handout from a similar group it is stated: ‘God will not be held back by our limitations or by national law.’ Details withheld to protect anonymity.