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Notes
1 For a general introduction and history of the Habré regime in Chad see M Azevedo and E Nnadozie, Chad: A Nation in Search of Its Future and The Roots of Violence (Nations of the Modern World: Westview Press, 1997); Sam C. Nolutshungu, Limits of Anarchy: Intervention and State Formation in Chad (Carter G. Woodson Institute Series in Back Studies, University Press of Virginia, 1996); J Burr and R Collins, Africa’s Thirty Years’ War: Chad-libya-the Sudan, 1963–1993 (Westview Press, 1999).
The author would like to thank Professor Jo Stigen and fellow PhD Candidates Anna Andersson, Stian Øby Johansen and Sondre Trop Helmersen for their valuable feedback on earlier versions of this article.
2 Prosecutor c. Habré, ‘Jugement’, Chambre Africaine Extraordinaire D’Assises (30 May 2016) (‘Habré Judgement’), <www.forumchambresafricaines.org/docs/JugementCAEd'Assises_Penal&Civil_.pdf> this and all websites were last accessed 8 August 2016.
3 I Sansani, ‘The Pinochet Precedence in Africa: Prosecution of Hissène Habré’ (2001) 8 Human Rights Brief 1.
4 J Burke, ‘Hissène Habré Trial Provides Model for International Justice’, The Guardian (London, 30 May 2016) <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/30/hissene-habre-trial-provides-model-for-international-justice>.
5 Prosecutor c. Habré ‘Décision Civil’ Chambre Africaine Extraordinaire D’Assises (29 July 2016) (‘Reparations Judgment’) also available as an annex at the end of the judgment: http://www.forumchambresafricaines.org/docs/JugementCAEd'Assises_Penal&Civil_.pdf
6 For an authoritative analysis of the EAC see S Williams, ‘The Extraordinary African Chambers in the Senegalese Courts: An African Solution to an African Problem?’ (2013) 11 JICJ 1139.
7 For a comprehensive profile of the case and Habré see M Bronner, ‘Our Man in Africa’, Foreign Policy Magazine (Washington DC, 20 July 2015) <http://foreignpolicy.com/2014/01/24/our-man-in-africa/>.
8 Augusto Pinochet ruled Chile from 1973 until 1990, and the Pinochet regime was also known for its notorious use of torture and forced disappearance of political opponents: for more on Habré's nickname, see BBC ‘Profile: Chad's Hissene Habre’ (30 May 2016) <http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-18927845>
9 Commissions of Inquiry, ‘Report of the Commission of Inquiry into the Crimes and Misappropriations Committed by Ex-President Habré, His Accomplices and/or Accessories’, 7 May 1992 reprinted in N J Kritz (ed), Transitional Justice How Emerging Democracies Reckon with Former Regimes, Volume I: General Considerations (USIP Press Books, 1995) 51–93.
10 ibid 91–92.
11 ibid 93.
12 House of Lords, Regina v Evans and Another and the Commissioner of Police for the Metropolis and Others (Appellant), Ex Parte Pinochet (Respondent) (On Appeal from a Divisional Court of the Queen's Bench Division) (No 3), Judgment of 24 March 1999, reported as Regina v Bow Street Metropolitan Stipendiary Magistrate and others, ex parte Pinochet Ugarte (No 3) [2000] 1 AC 147.
13 For more on the Spanish efforts to prosecute General Pinochet see N Roht-Arriaza, ‘The Pinochet Precedent and Universal Jurisdiction’ (2001) 35 New England L Rev 311.
14 RB Baker, ‘Universal Jurisdiction and the Case of Belgium: A Critical Assessment’ (2009) 16 J Intl & CL 141, 142.
15 Serving heads of state normally enjoy full immunity from the domestic courts of other states, but in 1999 the status of the immunity of former heads of states was still ‘unclear’: see C Warbrick and others, ‘I. The Future of Former Head of State Immunity after ex Parte Pinochet’ (1999) 48 Intl & Comp LQ 937, 938.
16 ibid 937.
17 Pinochet 3 (n 12) 203.
18 M Beyers, ‘The Law and Politics of the Pinochet Case’ (2000) 10 Duke Journal of Comparative & International Law 415, 437–38.
19 R Brody, ‘The Prosecution of Hissene Habre – An African Pinochet’ (2000-2001) 35 New ER LR 321.
20 The ICC only has jurisdiction to prosecute cases that have occurred after the Rome Statute came into force on the 1 July 2002, Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (17 July 1998) UN Doc. A/CONF.183/9, art 11(1).
21 For more details of the complaint that was filed, as well as the evidence collected see Brody (n 19), 324–26.
22 Sansani (n 3) 3.
23 As translated into English in Brody (n 19) 331.
24 Senegal had ratified CAT in 1986, see Convention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (adopted 10 December 1984 UNGA Res 39/46, entered into force 26 June 1987).
25 ibid arts 5–7.
26 A Solomon, ‘Politics of Prosecutions under the Convention Against Torture’ (2001) 2 Chicago J Intl L 309, 310; L Bingham, ‘Trying for a Just Result: The Hissene Habre Affair and Judicial Independence in Senegal’ (2009) 23 Temple Intl & CLJ 77, 85–86.
27 V Spiga, ‘Non-retroactivity of Criminal Law: A New Chapter in the Hissène Habré’ (2011) 9 JICJ 5, 6.
28 Human Rights Watch (HRW), ‘The Trial of Hissène Habré: Time is Running Out for the Victims’ (Report) (January 2007) 5–6.
29 ibid 6.
30 See Baker (n 14).
31 Bingham (n 26) 86.
32 ibid.
33 HRW (n 28) 7.
34 African Union ‘Decision on the Hissène Habré Case and the African Union’ Doc Assembly/AU/Dec. 127 (VII) (July 2006).
35 Committee against Torture, ‘Decisions of the Committee Against Torture under Art. 22 of the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane or Degrading Treatment or Punishment’ (17 May 2006) UN Doc CAT/C/36/D/181/2001, paras 9.6–9.12.
36 ibid para 10.
37 Spiga (n 27) 6–7.
38 ibid 9.
39 This critique is thoroughly presented by Spiga (n 27).
40 Hissen Habré c. République du Sénégal (Judgement) ECW/CCJ/JUD/06/10 ECOWAS Court (18 November 2010) para 58.
41 ‘ … fair juger dans le cadre strict d’une procédure spécial ad hoc à caractéere international’: ibid para 61.
42 Questions Concerning the Obligation to Prosecute or Extradite (Belgium v Senegal) (Judgement) [2012] ICJ Rep 422.
43 ibid 463.
44 Agreement Between the Government of the Republic of Senegal and the African Union on the Establishment of Extraordinary African Chambers within the Senegalese Judicial System (22 August 2012) (‘EAC Agreement’).
45 ibid art 1(1)–(4).
46 For more on the courts in Kosovo and East Timor see D Shraga, ‘The Second Generation UN-Based Tribunals: A Diversity of Mixed Jurisdictions’ in C Romano and others (eds), Internationalized Criminal Courts: Sierra Leone, East Timor, Kosovo and Cambodia (OUP, 2004) 32–34.
47 For more on the difference between international, hybrid and internationalised criminal courts see S Williams, Hybrid and Internationalised Criminal Tribunals (Studies in International & Comparative Criminal Law, Hart, 2012) 187.
48 For more on the ICTY and ICTR see A Casesse, International Criminal Law (3rd edn OUP, 2013) 258–261.
49 Neither the ICTY or ICTR were located in Rwanda or a former Yugoslavian state: ibid 265; see also R Zacklin, ‘The Failings of Ad Hoc International Tribunals’ (2004) 2 JICJ 541.
50 Zacklin (n 49) 545.
51 For an introduction to the different tribunals that have been created see Shraga (n 46).
52 Williams, ‘The Extraordinary African Chambers’ (n 6), 1147.
53 See Statute of the Extraordinary African Chambers within the courts of Senegal created to prosecute international crimes committed in Chad between 7 June 1982 and 1 December 1998 (22 August 2012), as translated and printed in 52 AJIL 1028 (‘EAC Statute’).
54 ibid art 4.
55 ibid art 16(1).
56 ibid arts 16(2), 17(1).
57 ibid art 11(3)–(4).
58 ibid.
59 It is worth noting that articles 11 and 12 shows that both the Senegalese judges and prosecutors are to be nominated by Senegal, but formally appointed by the AU.
60 Shraga (n 46).
61 Williams, ‘The Extraordinary African Chambers’ (n 6), 1151.
62 EAC Statute (n 53) art 3(1).
63 For more on universal jurisdiction and international criminal courts, see Williams, ‘The Extraordinary African Chambers’ (n 6) 1151.
64 EAC Statute (n 53) art 3(1).
65 ibid art 11.
66 Prosecutor c. Habré, ‘Ordonnance de Non-Lieu Partiel, De Mise en Accusation et de Renvoi Devant la Chambre Africaine Extraordinarie D’Assises’, Chambre Africaine d’Instruction (13 February 2105), <http://www.chambresafricaines.org/pdf/OrdonnanceRenvoi_CAE_13022015.pdf>
67 For more facts from the case see HRW, ‘Q&A: The Case of Hissène Habré before the Extraordinary African Chambers in Senegal’ (3 May 2016) <https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/05/03/qa-case-hissene-habre-extraordinary-african-chambers-senegal>
68 K Seelinger, ‘The Landmark Trial Against Dictator Hissène Habré’, Foreign Affairs (New York, 16 June 2016) <https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/chad/2016-06-16/landmark-trial-against-dictator-hiss-ne-habr>
69 Habré Judgement (n 2) 536.
70 Seelinger (n 68).
71 R Maclean, ‘Chad's Hissène Habré found guilty of crimes against humanity’ Guardian (London, 30 May 2016) <www.theguardian.com/world/2016/may/30/chad-hissene-habre-guilty-crimes-against-humanity-senegal>
72 See Reparations Judgment (n 5).
73 ibid para 55.
74 ibid para 82.
75 ibid.
76 ibid para 71.
77 R Maclean, ‘Hissène Habré ordered to pay millions for crimes against humanity in Chad’ Guardian (London, 29 July 2016) <www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/jul/29/hissene-habre-compensation-90m-crimes-against-humanity-chad>
78 Reuters, ‘Chad's former leader Habre appeals conviction for atrocities’ (11 June 2016) <http://af.reuters.com/article/chadNews/idAFL8N1930CV>
79 Williams, ‘The Extraordinary African Chambers’ (n 6), 1149.
80 Burke (n 4); S Ettaba, ‘Hissene Habre trial brings momentum for African justice on continent’, China Post (Taiwan, 3 June 2016) <http://www.chinapost.com.tw/commentary/afp/2016/06/03/468137/p2/Hissene-Habre.htm>
81 For more on the conflict between the AU and ICC see B Chigara and C Nwankwo, ‘‘‘To be or not to be?” The African Union and its Member States Parties’ Participation as High Contracting States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (1998)’ (2016) 33 NJHR 243; S Høgestøl, ‘Er Den internasjonale straffedomstolen afrikafiendtlig? Konfliktselektivitet og internasjonale straffedomstoler’ (2016) 74 Internasjonal Politikk 1.
82 A France-Presse, ‘African Union members back Kenyan plan to leave ICC’, Guardian (London, 1 February 2016) <https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/01/african-union-kenyan-plan-leave-international-criminal-court>
83 Ettaba (n 80).
84 For more on the proposed chamber see M du Plessis and N Fritz, ‘A (New) New Regional International Criminal Court For Africa?’, iLawyerblog (1 October 2014) <http://ilawyerblog.com/new-new-regional-international-criminal-court-africa/>
85 Art 23 of the new statute: for more see Amnesty International, ‘Malabo Protocol: Legal and Institutional Implications of the Merged and expanded African Court’ (Report) (22 January 2016) AI Index AFR 01/3063/2016, 26.
86 Williams, ‘The Extraordinary African Chambers’ (n 6), 1159.
87 K Carlson, ‘The Trial of Hissène Habré’ IntLawGrrls (24 May 2016) <https://ilg2.org/2016/05/24/the-trial-of-hissene-habre/>
88 Quoted in E Rugiririza, ‘Habré Gets Life Sentence in Historic Judgment’ Justiceinfo.net (30 May 2015) <www.justiceinfo.net/en/component/k2/27541.html>