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ABSTRACT
Existing methodological approaches to business and human rights frequently fail to address the broad spectrum of relevant issues in the field. Persistent disciplinary silos and normative limitations of key legal and governance instruments result in reductive normative approaches and ultimately in ineffective policies. Focusing on the normative environment covered by UN Guiding Principle on Business and Human Rights No 9, specifically on the intersection between business and human rights in international investment, this paper argues for the need to put forward interdisciplinary socio-legal methodologies. It contends that any comprehensive methodology addressing the field ought to account for the specificity of existing governance models, the intrinsic dominant role of corporate actors and the socio-legal complexity displayed at the intersection of human rights with business and market mechanisms. The analysis developed is advanced not as a ‘model’ methodology but as an instance of mapping out how a relatively narrow governance approach can be enhanced methodologically in order to better inform research and policy design.
Notes
1 Roger Cotterrell, ‘Why Must Legal Ideas Be Interpreted Sociologically?’ (1998) 25(2) Journal of Law and Society 171, 177.
2 The author would like to thank two anonymous peer reviewers for their careful reading of the manuscript and for their valuable comments and suggestions. The author is equally grateful to the participants in the discussions of an earlier version of this paper during the European Business Ethics Network Annual Conference (Jyväskylä School of Business and Economics, June 2017) and the European Society of International Law workshop ‘Emerging Research Trends in the Field of Business and Human Rights’ (University of Geneva, November 2017). Any remaining errors are, of course, the author’s alone.
3 Sarah Joseph, ‘Human Rights and International Economic Law’ European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2016 (Springer, Cham 2016).
4 The term ‘socio-legal’ is used here in its wide-ranging meaning as offered by the Socio-Legal Studies Association. It covers both theoretical and empirical work, as well as more policy-oriented studies. The socio-legal methodological approach to the study of legal phenomena references a large spectrum of disciplines. While traditionally socio-legal research has bridged the divide between law and sociology, social policy, and economics, there is also an increasing interest in bringing together law and organisational studies, international relations, governance studies and disciplines in the field of humanities. SLSA, ‘What Is Socio-Legal Research?’ (Socio-Legal Research Centre – DCU, 12 March 2010) <https://sociolegaldcu.wordpress.com/what-is-socio-legal-research/> accessed 25 August 2018.
5 Sol Picciotto, ‘Critical Theory and Practice in International Economic Law and the New Global Governance’ European Yearbook of International Economic Law 2016 (Springer, Cham 2016).
6 Horatia Muir Watt, ‘The Contested Legitimacy of Investment Arbitration and the Human Rights Ordeal’ in Walter Mattli and Thomas Dietz (eds), International Arbitration and Global Governance: Contending Theories and Evidence (OUP 2014) 2. For an institutional perspective on the evolution of customary patterns, see Richard R Nelson and Bhaven N Sampat, ‘Making Sense of Institutions as a Factor Shaping Economic Performance’ (2001) 44(1) Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 31, 38.
7 UNCTAD, ‘World Investment Report 2012: Towards a New Generation of Investment Policies. Chapter III – Recent Policy Developments’ (United Nations 2012) 84–86.
8 UNCTAD, ‘World Investment Report 2012 – Chapter III’ (n 6).
9 Ibid 79; UNCTAD, ‘World Investment Report 2009: Transnational Corporations, Agricultural Production and Development’ (2009) 30f.
10 Anne Van Aaken, ‘Fragmentation of International Law: The Case of International Investment Protection’ (2008) 17(1) Finnish Yearbook of International Law 91.
11 United Nations, ‘Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Implementing the United Nations “Protect, Respect and Remedy” Framework’ (2011) A/HRC/17/31.
12 UNCTAD, ‘World Investment Report 2003. FDI Policies for Development: National and International Perspectives’ (2003).
13 For the inter-relatedness of the various international spheres and the role of human rights, see Alfred-Maurice de Zayas, ‘OHCHR Statement by Alfred-Maurice de Zayas, Independent Expert on the Promotion of a Democratic and Equitable International Order at the 72nd Session of the General Assembly’ (OHCHR 2017).
14 Tom Campbell, ‘The Normative Grounding of Corporate Social Responsibility: A Human Rights Approach’ in Doreen McBarnet, Aurora Voiculescu and Tom Campbell (eds), The New Corporate Accountability: Corporate Social Responsibility and the Law (Cambridge University Press 2007) 22.
15 Jens Martens and Judith Richter, ‘Corporate Influence on the Business and Human Rights Agenda of the United Nations’ (2014) Bischöfliches Hilfswerk MISEREOR eV; Brot für die Welt; Global Policy Forum Working Paper.
16 Aurora Voiculescu, ‘Human Rights, Corporate Social Responsibility and International Economic Law: Strong Answers to Strong Questions?’ in Amanda Perry-Kessaris (ed), Socio-Legal Approaches to International Economic Law: Text, Context, Subtext (Routledge 2013) 222.
17 Steve Charnovitz, ‘What Is International Economic Law?’ (2011) 14(1) Journal of International Economic Law 3; Isabella D Bunn and Colin B Picker, ‘The State and Future of International Economic Law’ in Colin B Picker, Isabella D Bunn and Douglas W Arner (eds), International Economic Law: The State and Future of the Discipline (Hart 2008) 1.
18 Emmanuel Gaillard, ‘Sociology of International Arbitration’ (2015) 31 Arbitration International 1.
19 Isabella D Bunn, ‘Linkages Between Ethics and International Economic Law’ (2000) 19(2) University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law 319, 319.
20 Joseph (n 2); Frank J Garcia and Lindita V Ciko, ‘Theories of Justice and International Economic Law’ in John Linarelli (ed), Research Handbook on Global Justice and International Economic Law (Edward Elgar 2013) 54; David Kinley, Civilising Globalisation: Human Rights and the Global Economy (Cambridge University Press 2009) 47; Elizabeth M Iglesias, ‘Human Rights in International Economic Law: Locating Latinas/Os in the Linkage Debates’ (1996) 28 University of Miami Inter-American Law Review 361.
21 Robert Howse and Ruti G Teitel, Beyond the Divide: The Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights and the World Trade Organization (Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung 2007) 4.
22 Amanda Perry-Kessaris, ‘What Does It Mean to Take a Socio-Legal Approach to International Economic Law?’ in Amanda Perry-Kessaris (ed), Socio-Legal Approaches to International Economic Law (Routledge 2014) 6.
23 Kinley (n 19) 3.
24 Voiculescu, ‘Human Rights, Corporate Social Responsibility and International Economic Law’ (n 15).
25 Richard H Steinberg, ‘Trade-Environment Negotiations in the EU, NAFTA, and WTO: Regional Trajectories of Rule Development’ (1997) 91 American Journal of International Law 231.
26 Markus Krajewski, ‘Ensuring the Primacy of Human Rights in Trade and Investment Policies: Model Clauses for a UN Treaty on Transnational Corporations, Other Businesses and Human Rights’ (CIDSE 2017) CIDSE, Private Sector Group 16; Caroline Dommen, ‘The WTO, International Trade, and Human Rights’ in Michael Windfuhr (ed), Beyond the Nation State: Human Rights in Times of Globalization (Global Publications Foundation 2005) 52–74; World Trade Organisation (WTO), ‘Human Rights and the WTO: Dispute Settlement and Trade Policy Review Mechanisms’ (WTO 2011).
27 Valentina Vadi, ‘Beyond Known Worlds: Climate Change Governance by Arbitral Tribunals?’ (2015) 48(5) Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 1285.
28 Voiculescu, ‘Human Rights, Corporate Social Responsibility and International Economic Law’ (n 15) 227; Frank J Garcia, ‘The Trade Linkage Phenomenon: Pointing the Way to the Trade Law and Global Social Policy of the 21st Century’ (1998) 19(2) University of Pennsylvania Journal of International Economic Law 201, 204.
29 Voiculescu, ‘Human Rights, Corporate Social Responsibility and International Economic Law’ (n 15) 229.
30 Kathrine Gordon, Joachim Pohl and Marie Bouchard, ‘Investment Treaty Law, Sustainable Development and Responsible Business Conduct: A Fact Finding Survey’ (2014) OECD Working Papers on International Investment.
31 Frank J Garcia, ‘Globalization and the Theory of International Law’ (2005) 11(Fall) International Legal Theory 9; Drusilla K Brown, ‘Labor Standards: Where Do They Belong on the International Trade Agenda?’ (2001) 15(3) Journal of Economic Perspectives 89.
32 Brown (n 30) 92f.
33 Angus Corbett and Peta Spender, ‘Review Essay: Corporate Constitutionalism’ (2009) 31(1) Sydney Law Review 147, 148f.
34 Mary E Footer, ‘Bits and Peaces: Social and Environmental Protection in the Regulation of Foreign Investment’ (2009) 18(1) Michigan State Journal of International Law 33.
35 Voiculescu, ‘Human Rights, Corporate Social Responsibility and International Economic Law’ (n 15) 230.
36 Paul O’Connell, ‘On Reconciling Irreconcilables: Neo-Liberal Globalisation and Human Rights’ (2007) 7(3) Human Rights Law Review 483.
37 Nicolas Klein, ‘Human Rights and International Investment Law: Investment Protection as Human Right?’ (2012) 4(1) Goettingen Journal of International Law 199, 206; Timothy G Nelson, ‘Human Rights Law and BIT Protection: Areas of Convergence’ (2011) 12(1) Journal of World Investment & Trade 27.
38 Marius Emberland, The Human Rights of Companies: Exploring the Structure of ECHR Protection (OUP 2006); Stefanie Khoury and David Whyte, Corporate Human Rights Violations: Global Prospects for Legal Action (Routledge 2018) 136; Winfried HAM van den Muijsenbergh and Sam Rezai, ‘Corporations and the European Convention on Human Rights’ (2011) 25(1) Global Business & Development Law Journal 43.
39 Emberland (n 37); Anna Grear, ‘Challenging Corporate Humanity: Legal Disembodiment, Embodiment and Human Rights’ (2007) 7(3) Human Rights Law Review 511; Khoury and Whyte (n 37).
40 Luke Eric Peterson, ‘Human Rights and Bilateral Investment Treaties: Mapping the Role of Human Rights Law within Investor-State Arbitration’ (International Centre for Human Rights and Democratic Development Report 2009) 23.
41 A number of studies address such processes of ‘constitutionalisation’, suggesting that those processes that promote and connect trade and investment institutions, management techniques, and quasi-judicial powers of discrete bodies are seen as constructing a ‘constitution’ for those institutions (such as WTO and ICSID). This suggests that there are certain mutations that are taking place in the traditional notion of constitutionalisation. Such processes enable those institutions to consider and evaluate non-economic and non-free-trade goals outside the usual domestic democratic processes, which raises obvious issues of legitimacy and democracy: Deborah Z Cass, The Constitutionalization of the World Trade Organization: Legitimacy, Democracy, and Community in the International Trading System (OUP 2005) 22; Sol Picciotto, ‘Constitutionalizing Multilevel Governance?’ (2008) 6(3-4) International Journal of Constitutional Law 457, 471ff; Martti Koskenniemi, ‘Constitutionalism as Mindset: Reflections on Kantian Themes About International Law and Globalization’ (2006) 8(1) Theoretical Inquiries in Law 9, 21.
42 Sabine Frerichs, ‘Law, Economy and Society in the Global Age: A Study Guide’ in Amanda Perry-Kessaris (ed), Socio-Legal Approaches to International Economic Law: Text, Context, Subtext (Routledge 2013) 37–43.
43 Howse and Teitel (n 20) 7.
44 For an interesting structuring of such research dimensions along the legal text, context and subtext, see Perry-Kessaris, ‘What Does It Mean to Take a Socio-Legal Approach’ (n 21) 6–10; United Nations, ‘Fragmentation of International Law: Difficulties Arising from the Diversification and Expansion of International Law: Report of the Study Group of the International Law Commission – Finalized by Martti Koskenniemi’ (International Law Commission 2006) A/CN.4/L.682.
45 John Linarelli, ‘Law, Rights and Development’ in John Linarelli (ed), Research Handbook on Global Justice and International Economic Law (Edward Elgar 2013); Philip Alston and Mary Robinson, ‘Some Reflections on Human Rights and Development’ in Philip Alston and Mary Robinson (eds), Human Rights and Development: Towards Mutual Reinforcement (OUP 2005).
46 United Nations, ‘Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights’ (n 10).
47 Rodney Bruce Hall and Thomas J Biersteker, ‘The Emergence of Private Authority in the International System’ in Rodney Bruce Hall and Thomas J Biersteker (eds), The Emergence of Private Authority in Global Governance (Cambridge University Press 2010) 4; Martti Koskenniemi and Päivi Leino, ‘Fragmentation of International Law? Postmodern Anxieties’ (2002) 15 Leiden Journal of International Law 553.
48 Martti Koskenniemi, ‘The Politics of International Law: 20 Years Later’ (2009) 20(1) European Journal of International Law 7, 9.
49 Sol Picciotto, ‘Liberalization and Democratization: The Forum and the Hearth in the Era of Cosmopolitan Post-Industrial Capitalism’ (2000) 63(4) Law and Contemporary Problems 157, 160; Frank Biermann, Philipp Patberg, Harro van Asselt and Fariborz Zelli, ‘The Fragmentation of Global Governance Architectures: A Framework for Analysis’ (2009) 9(4) Global Environmental Politics 14.
50 Koskenniemi, ‘The Politics of International Law’ (n 47) 9; OECD, International Investment Law:Understanding Concepts and Tracking Innovations (OECD 2008).
51 Louis W Pauly, ‘Global Finance, Political Authority, and the Problem of Legitimation’ in Rodney Bruce Hall and Thomas J Biersteker (eds), The Emergence of Private Authority in Global Governance (Cambridge University Press 2010).
52 UNCTAD, ‘World Investment Report 2008: Transnational Corporations and the Infrastructure Challenge’ (United Nations 2008) 162f; OECD, International Investment Law (n 49).
53 UNCTAD, ‘World Investment Report 2010: Investing in a Low-Carbon Economy’ (United Nations 2010) 78; Mary Hallward-Driemeier, ‘Do Bilateral Investment Treaties Attract FDI? Only a Bit … and They Could Bite’ in Karl P Sauvant and Lisa E Sachs (eds), Effect of Treaties on Foreign Direct Investment: Bilateral Investment Treaties, Double Taxation Treaties, and Investment Flows – Oxford Scholarship (Oxford Scholarship Online 2009) 368.
54 Aaken (n 9); Peterson (n 39).
55 Susan Rose-Ackerman and Jennifer Tobin, ‘Foreign Direct Investment and the Business Environment in Developing Countries: The Impact of Bilateral Investment Treaties’ (2005) Yale Law & Economics Research Paper No 293; Andrew T Guzman, ‘Why LDCs Sign Treaties That Hurt Them: Explaining the Popularity of Bilateral Investment Treaties’ (1998) 38(4) Virginia Journal of International Law 639; Ndiva Kofele-Kale, ‘The Political Economy of Foreign Direct Investment: A Framework for Analyzing Investment Laws and Regulations in Developing Countries’ (1992) 23(2-3) Law and Policy in International Business 619.
56 For competing meanings of this term see J Anthony VanDuzer, Penelope Simons and Graham Mayeda, ‘Integrating Sustainable Development into International Investment Agreements: A Guide for Developing Countries’ (Commonwealth Secretariat 2012) 24f.
57 Hallward-Driemeier (n 52) 379; Guzman (n 54).
58 Hallward-Driemeier (n 52) 368, 374.
59 Jonathan Bonnitcha, Lauge N Skovgaard Poulsen and Michael Waibel, The Political Economy of the Investment Treaty Regime (OUP 2017) 233; Jan Peter Sasse, An Economic Analysis of Bilateral Investment Treaties (Gabler 2011) 12, 67; Mavluda Sattorova, ‘The Impact of Investment Treaty Law on Host State Behavior: Some Doctrinal, Empirical, and Interdisciplinary Insights’ in Shaheeza Lalani and Rodrigo Polanco Lazo (eds), The Role of the State in Investor–State Arbitration, vol 3 (Martinus Nijhoff 2014).
60 UNCTAD, ‘Reform of the International Investment Agreement Regime: Phase 2. TD/B/CII/MEM4/14.’ (2017).
61 Patrick Dumberry and Gabrielle Dumas-Aubin, ‘A Few Pragmatic Observations on How BITs Should Be Modified to Incorporate Human Rights Obligations’ (2014) 11(1) Transnational Dispute Management. Special Issue: Reform of Investor-State Dispute Settlement: In Search of A Roadmap 1.
62 United Nations, ‘Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights’ (n 10).
63 Bruno Simma, ‘Foreign Investment Arbitration: A Place for Human Rights?’ (2011) 60(3) The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 573, 574; Kenneth J Vandevelde, Bilateral Investment Treaties: History, Policy, and Interpretation (OUP 2010) 1–35.
64 Patrick Dumberry and Gabrielle Dumas-Aubin, ‘How to Impose Human Rights Obligations on Corporations under Investment Treaties? Pragmatic Guidelines for the Amendment of BITs’ in Karl P Sauvant (ed), Yearbook on International Investment Law & Policy 2011–2012, vol 14 (OUP 2013) 569–600.
65 COST Action IS 0702: ‘The Role of the EU in UN Human Rights Reform (2009–2012)’.
66 ibid.
67 Larry Cata Backer, ‘Private Actors and Public Governance beyond the State: The Multinational Corporation, the Financial Stability Board, and the Global Governance Order’ (2011) 18(2) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 751.
68 Mark Fewick, Steven Van Uytsel and Stefan Wrbka (eds), Networked Governance, Transnational Business and the Law (Springer 2014) 3.
69 Randall Germain, Global Politics and Financial Governance (Palgrave Macmillan 2010) 131.
70 Backer (n 66).
71 Fewick, Uytsel and Wrbka (n 67) 3. John Ruggie, ‘Global Governance and “New Governance Theory”: Lessons from Business and Human Rights’ (2014) 20 Global Governance: A Review of Multilateralism and International Organizations 5, 9.
72 Peter Muchlinski, ‘Policy Issues’ in Peter Muchlinski, Federico Ortino and Christoph Schreuer (eds), The Oxford Handbook of International Investment (OUP 2008) 7; Andrew Walter, ‘Unravelling the Faustian Bargain: Non-State Actors and the Multilateral Agreement on Investment’, in Daphne Josselin and William Wallace (eds), Non-State Actors in World Politics (Palgrave Macmillan 2001) 150.
73 Karsten Nowrot, ‘Transnational Corporations as Steering Subjects in International Economic Law: Two Competing Visions of the Future?’ (2011) 18(2) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 803, 805.
74 OHCHR, ‘Trade Agreements Should Mainstream Human Rights – UN Expert Urges’ (2016); Alfred-Maurice de Zayas, ‘Report of the Independent Expert on the Promotion of a Democratic and Equitable International Order’ (2016) Thematic Report, pursuant to Council resolution 30/29 A/HRC/33/40.
75 Nowrot (n 72) 823.
76 Peter Muchlinski, ‘“Global Bukowina” Examined: Viewing the Multinational Enterprise as a Transnational Law-Making Community’ in Gunther Teubner (ed), Global Law without a State (Dartmouth 1997) 79.
77 David Levi-Faur, ‘Regulation & Regulatory Governance’ (2010) Working Paper No 1 Jerusalem Papers in Regulation and Governance 1, 25–27; Ruggie, ‘Global Governance’ (n 70) 5.
78 Sachet Singh and Sooraj Sharma, ‘Investor-State Dispute Settlement Mechanism: The Quest for a Workable Roadmap’ (2013) 29(76) Merkourios: Utrecht Journal of International and European Law 88.
79 Giorgio Sacerdoti, ‘From Law Professor to International Adjudicator: The WTO Appellate Body and ICSID Arbitration Compared, a Personal Account’ in David D Caron and others (eds), Practising Virtue: Inside International Arbitration (OUP 2015) 206.
80 Nowrot (n 72) 823.
81 Corporate Europe Observatory (CEO), ‘Profiting from Injustice: How Law Firms, Arbitrators and Financiers Are Fuelling an Investment Arbitration Boom’ ( CEO and the Transnational Institute [TNI] 2012) 7.
82 OECD, ‘Dispute Settlement Provisions in International Investment Agreements: A Large Sample Survey’ (2012) OECD, Investment Division, Directorate for Financial and Enterprise Affairs; OECD, ‘Environmental Concerns in International Investment Agreements: A Survey’ (2011) OECD Working Papers on International Investment 2011/01.
83 Alex Mills, ‘The Balancing (and Unbalancing?) of Interests in International Investment Law and Arbitration’ in Zachary Douglas, Joost Pauwelyn and Jorge E Viñuales (eds), The Foundations of International Investment Law: Bringing Theory Into Practice (OUP 2014) 462.
84 Alan Boyle and Christine Chinkin, The Making of International Law (OUP 2007) 263ff.
85 Plama Consortium Limited v Republic of Bulgaria [2008] ICSID case no ARB/03/24.
86 James N Rosenau, ‘Governance in a New Global Order’ in David Held and Anthony McGrew (eds), Governing Globalization: Power, Authority and Global Governance (Polity Press 2002) 70.
87 Jost Delbruck, ‘Transnational Federalism: Problems and Prospects of Allocating Public Authority beyond the State Lecture: The Earl A Snyder Lecture in International Law’ (2004) 11(1) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 31, 43.
88 Backer (n 66) 751.
89 Levi-Faur (n 76) 24.
90 Levi-Faur (n 76).
91 Aurora Voiculescu, ‘Investment in Human Rights: Defragment or Reboot? (Panel: International Economic Law: Governing Markets in Context. Convenors: C Tan, G Castellano and S Connelly’ (Socio-Legal Studies Association Annual Conference 2015) <https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=242045#> accessed 17 October 2018.
92 Backer (n 66) 758.
93 Joana Mendes, ‘Rule of Law and Participation: A Normative Analysis of Internationalized Rulemaking as Composite Procedures’ (2014) 12(2) International Journal of Constitutional Law 370, 374.
94 Doreen McBarnet and Marina Kurkchiyan, ‘Corporate Social Responsibility Through Contractual Control: Global Supply Chains and “Other-Regulation”’ in Doreen McBarnet, Aurora Voiculescu and Tom Campbell (eds), The New Corporate Accountability: Corporate Social Responsibility and the Law (Cambridge University Press 2007) 59.
95 Doreen J McBarnet, ‘Corporate Social Responsibility Beyond Law, Through Law, for Law: The New Corporate Accountability’ in Doreen McBarnet, Aurora Voiculescu and Tom Campbell (eds), The New Corporate Accountability: Corporate Social Responsibility and the Law (Cambridge University Press 2007) 9.
96 Backer (n 66) 761; Gunther Teubner, ‘The Corporate Codes of Multinationals: Company Constitutions Beyond Corporate Governance and Co-Determination’ in Rainer Nickel (ed), Conflict of Laws and Laws of Conflict in Europe and Beyond: Patterns of Supranational and Transnational Juridification (Intersentia 2010) 206.
97 Teubner, ‘The Corporate Codes of Multinationals’ (n 95) 205, for instance, speaks about processes of ‘ … constitutionalisation of private governance regimes’.
98 Laura Albareda, ‘Corporate Responsibility, Governance and Accountability: From Self-Regulation to Co-Regulation’ (2008) 8(4) Corporate Governance 430.
99 Teubner, ‘The Corporate Codes of Multinationals’ (n 95) 208.
100 See Koskenniemi’s (‘Constitutionalism as Mindset’ n 40) transformations of the vocabularies of power in this respect.
101 Gabriel A Huppé, Heather Creech and Doris Knoblauch, ‘The Frontiers of Networked Governance’ (February 2012) International Institute for Sustainable Development Report (IISD 2012); Ruggie, ‘Global Governance’ (n 70) 5.
102 Teubner refers to this process as a process of ‘autoconstitutionalisation of corporations’: Gunther Teubner, ‘Self-Constitutionalizing TNCs: On the Linkage of Private and Public Corporate Codes of Conduct’ (2011) 18(2) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 617, 638.
103 Martens and Richter (n 14).
104 United Nations, ‘Protect, Respect and Remedy: A Framework for Business and Human Rights’ A/HRC/8/5.
105 Radu Mares, ‘Business and Human Rights After Ruggie: Foundations, the Art of Simplification and the Imperative of Cumulative Progress’ in Radu Mares (ed), The UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights: Foundations and Implementation (Martinus Nijhoff/Brill Academic 2012).
106 Or, as Teubner defines it, the production of societal ‘constitutionalism’: Teubner, ‘Self-Constitutionalizing TNCs’ (n 101).
107 Alain Supiot, ‘The Public–Private Relation in the Context of Today’s Refeudalization’ (2013) 11(1) International Journal of Constitutional Law 129.
108 Sol Picciotto, Regulating Global Corporate Capitalism (Cambridge University Press 2011) 483ff.
109 LM Moncrieff, ‘The Molotov Milkshake: Corporate Social Responsibility and the Market’ (2011) 22(3) Law and Critique 273.
110 Emilios Christodoulidis, ‘On the Politics of Societal Constitutionalism’ (2013) 20(2) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 629, 663.
111 John Ruggie, ‘Clarifying the Concepts of “Sphere of Influence” and “Complicity”’ (United Nations Human Rights Council 2008) Report of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the Issue of Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and other Business Enterprises A/HRC/8/16.
112 Ibid, paras 6 and 7.
113 Sarianna M Lundan, ‘The Coevolution of Transnational Corporations and Institutions’ (2011) 18(2) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 639, 649.
114 John Cantwell, John H Dunning and Sarianna M Lundan, ‘An Evolutionary Approach to Understanding International Business Activity: The Co-Evolution of MNEs and the Institutional Environment’ (2010) 41(4) Journal of International Business Studies 567; Martens and Richter (n 14).
115 Corporate Europe Observatory (CEO) (n 80); Martens and Richter (n 14).
116 When researching labour rights in international supply chains, for instance, Berliner and colleagues drew on a mixed-methodologies approach in order to identify the relevant policy avenues related to the promotion of international labour rights. While the authors do not directly engage with the networked governance debate, their proposed model identifies stakeholders as ‘working-clusters of actors’ and uses interests ‘alignment’ as a signal of inter-cluster institutional communications: Daniel Berliner, Anne R Greenleaf, Milli Lake, Margaret Levi and Jennifer Noveck, Labor Standards in International Supply Chains: Aligning Rights and Incentives (Edward Elgar 2015).
117 James Harrison, ‘The Case for Investigative Legal Pluralism in International Economic Law Linkage Debates: A Strategy for Enhancing the Value of International Legal Discourse’ (2014) 2(1) London Review of International Law 115 (emphasis added).
118 Mendes (n 92).
119 See ibid 370 for an insightful normative analysis of internationalised rulemaking.
120 John Law, ‘Making a Mess with Method’ in William Outhwaite and Stephen P Turner (eds), The Sage Handbook of Social Science Methodology (Sage 2007) 606.