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ABSTRACT
In this article we examine the future of human rights by looking at how ‘authoritarianism’, in its multifaceted forms and manifestations, intersects with existing discourses on climate change, environmental protection, populism and ‘gender deviance’. By adopting an intersectional lens, we interrogate the emergence of the right to a healthy environment and reflect on whether it will help against the double challenge faced by human rights: of climate breakdown and rising authoritarianism. We study the link between authoritarianism and populism, focusing on far-right populism and the creeping authoritarian features that we can associate with far-right groups, both movements and parties. We also consider how certain understandings of nature and the environment are put forward by authoritarian regimes. This leads us to consider so-called ‘ecologism’ and the ways in which far-right movements draw upon green thought on the natural environment to further a gendered agenda based on conceptions of nature as a ‘national treasure’. These conceptions, as we demonstrate, go hand in hand with policies that promote national identity and directly undermine the rights of migrants, ethnic minorities, women and LGBT+ groups.
Notes
1 G Habu, ‘Inaction at COP26 Will Cost Lives and Livelihoods’ (12 October 2021) The Commonwealth <https://thecommonwealth.org/media/news/inaction-cop26-will-cost-lives-and-livelihoods> accessed 20 October 2021.
2 A Grear, ‘Introduction: “Staying with the Trouble”: Environmental Justice for the Anthropocene–Capitalocene’ in A Grear (ed), Environmental Justice (Edwar Elgar 2020). See also LJ Kotzé, ‘The Anthropocene, Earth System Vulnerability and Socio-Ecological Injustice in an Age of Human Rights’ (2019) 10 Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 62.
3 R Kapur, Gender, Alterity and Human Rights: Freedom in a Fishbowl (Edward Elgar 2018) esp chs 5 and 6.
4 Human Rights Council, ‘The Human Right to a Safe, Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment’ (5 October 2021) UN Doc A/HRC/48/L23/Rev1.
5 Human Rights Council, ‘Mandate of the Special Rapporteur on the promotion and protection of human rights in the context of climate change’ (4 October 2021) UN Doc A/HRC/48/L27*.
6 A Savaresi, ‘The UN HRC Recognizes the Right to a Healthy Environment and Appoints a New Special Rapporteur on Human Rights and Climate Change: What Does It All Mean?’ EJILTalk! (12 October 2021) <www.ejiltalk.org/the-un-hrc-recognizes-the-right-to-a-healthy-environment-and-appoints-a-new-special-rapporteur-on-human-rights-and-climate-change-what-does-it-all-mean/> accessed 20 October 2021.
7 K Crenshaw, ‘Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics’ (1989) (1) University of Chicago Legal Forum, article 8.
8 It is important to note, however, that various scholars have evidenced that the ‘kernel’ and key features of authoritarianism and fascism ‘ … are lodged somewhere in the DNA of the normative system [of international law] we now take for granted’ and that inter-war fascism ‘ … took almost 500 years of European colonialism, with its brutal expansionism and Social Darwinist logic (at the time, entirely “legal”), and turned it in on itself’. See further Rose Sydney Parfitt in C Aksan and J Bailes, ‘One Question, Fascism (Part One): Is Fascism Making a Comeback?’ State of Nature (2017) <http://stateofnatureblog.com/one-question-fascism-part-one/> accessed 11 January 2022.
9 D Lawrence, ‘From Climate Denial to Blood and Soil’ (2021) <https://hopenothate.org.uk/from-climate-denial-to-blood-and-soil/> accessed 11 January 2022.
10 A Graff, ‘Necessary and Impossible: How Western Academic Feminism Has Travelled East’ in T Kulawik and Z Kravchenko, Borderlands in European Gender Studies: Beyond the East-West Frontier (Routledge 2019). See also E Korolczuk and A Graff, ‘Gender as “Ebola from Brussels”: The Anticolonial Frame and the Rise of Illiberal Populism’ 43(4) Signs 797, https://doi.org/10.1086/696691. For a thorough critique of anti-genderism, see J Butler, ‘Why is the Idea of “Gender” Provoking Backlash the World Over?’ The Guardian (London, 23 October 2021) <www.theguardian.com/us-news/commentisfree/2021/oct/23/judith-butler-gender-ideology-backlash> accessed 22 October 2021; J Butler, The Force of Nonviolence: An Ethico-Political Bind (Verso 2020) esp ch 1 and the Postscript.
11 C Agius, A Bergman Rosamond and C Kinnvall, ‘Populism, Ontological Insecurity and Gendered Nationalism: Masculinity, Climate Denial and Covid-19’ (2020) 21(4) Politics, Religion & Ideology 432–50. On toxic masculinity, see C Daggett, ‘Petro-Masculinity: Fossil Fuels and Authoritarian Desire’ (2018) 41(1) Millenium 25.
12 Agius and others (n 11) 432–50.
13 P Alston, ‘World Faces “Climate Apartheid” Risk, 120 More Million in Poverty UN Expert’ (25 June 2019) UN News <https://news.un.org/en/story/2019/06/1041261> accessed 11 January 2022.
14 N Tuana, ‘Climate Apartheid: The Forgetting of Race in the Anthropocene’ (2019) 7 Critical Philosophy of Race 1.
15 A Luhrmann and others, ‘Regimes in the World (RIW) A Robust Regime Type Measure based on V-Dem’ University of Gothenburg, V-Dem Institute (2017) Working Papers Series 2017: 47, p 1.
16 C Mudde and CR Kaltwasser, ‘Populism and (Liberal) Democracy: A Framework for Analysis’ in C Mudde and others (eds), Populism in Europe and the Americas: Threat or Corrective for Democracy? (Cambridge University Press 2012) 1.
17 Luhrmann and others (n 15) 1.
18 Ibid.
19 Ibid.
20 Mudde and Kaltwasser (n 16) 1.
21 Luhrmann and others (n 15) 1.
22 Mudde and Kaltwasser (n 16) 13.
23 Ibid. 14.
24 See generally A Bächtiger and others, ‘Deliberative Democracy: An Introduction’ in A Bächtiger and others (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Deliberative Democracy (Oxford University Press 2018).
25 E Laclau and C Mouffe, Hegemony and Socialist Strategy (Verso 1985). See also C Mouffe, The Democratic Paradox (Verso 2005).
26 Laclau and Mouffe (n 25).
27 A Bergman Rosamond and others, ‘The Case for Interdisciplinary Crisis Studies’ (2020) Global Discourse (online first) 1.
28 S Levitsky and LA Way, ‘Elections without Democracy: The Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism’ (2002) 13(2) Journal of Democracy 51.
29 A Luhrmann and SI Lindberg, ‘A Third Wave of Autocratization Is Here: What is New About It?’ (2019) 26(7) Democratization 1095.
30 Ibid.
31 A Hadenius and J Teorell, ‘Pathways from Authoritarianism’ (2007) 18(1) Journal of Democracy 143, 143.
32 Ibid. 146.
33 Ibid. 154.
34 K Yusoff, ‘Geologic Life: Prehistory, Climate, Futures in the Anthropocene’ (2013) 31(5) Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 779.
35 Crenshaw (n 7).
36 Agius and others (n 11).
37 Luhrmann and Lindberg (n 29).
38 M Glasius ‘What Authoritarianism is … And Is Not: A Practice Perspective’ (2018) 94(3) International Affairs 515.
39 Agius and others (n 11). See also C Mudde and CR Kaltwasser, Populism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press 2017).
40 Agius and others (n 11). L Nicholas and C Agius, The Persistence of Global Masculinism: Discourse, Gender and Neo-Colonial Articulations of Violence (Palgrave Macmillan 2018) 1–189.
41 Agius and others (n 11). See also see C Mudde, The Far Right Today (Polity 2019); C Mudde, ‘Why the Far Right is Obsessed With “Gender Ideology”’ New Statesman (20 September 2019) <www.newstatesman.com/world/europe/2019/09/why-far-right-obsessed-gender-ideology> accessed 20 October 2021.
42 Glasius (n 38) 517.
43 Ibid.
44 Levitsky and Way (n 28).
45 See LJ Kotzé, ‘Editorial: Coloniality, Neoliberalism and the Anthropocene’ (2019) 10 Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 1. On good governance, see M Sattorova, The Impact of Investment Treaty Law on Host States: Enabling Good Governance? (Hart 2018) chs 3 and 6; see also C Tan, Governance Through Development: Poverty Reduction Strategies, International Law and the Disciplining of Third World States (Routledge 2011) ch 6. On the standard of civilization in international law, see N Tzouvala, Capitalism as Civilization: A History of International Law (Cambridge University Press 2020) ch 6.
46 Levitsky and Way (n 28).
47 SF Maerz and others, ‘State of the World 2019: Autocratization Surges – Resistance Grows’ (2020) 27(6) Democratizations 916.
48 AE Hyvönen, ‘Defining Post-Truth: Structures, Agents and Styles’ (2018) E-International Relations. https://www.eir.info/2018/10/22/defining-post-truth-structures-agents-and-styles/
49 A Müller, ‘The European Court of Human Rights and the Rise of Authoritarianism in Russia’ in J Vidmar (ed), European Populism and Human Rights (Brill 2020) 215–55, 215.
50 Agius and others (n 11); and Mudde and Kaltwasser (n 22). See also, generally, JW Müller, What is Populism? (University of Pennsylvania Press 2016).
51 Agius and others (n 11).
52 R Sanders, ‘Norm Spoiling: Undermining the International Women’s Rights Agenda’ (2018) 94(2) International Affairs 271.
53 Y Stavarakakis and others, ‘Contemporary Left-wing Populism in Latin America: Leadership, Horizontalism, and Postdemocracy in Chávez’s Venezuela’ (2018) 58(3) Latin American Politics and Society 51, 51.
54 C Mouffe, ‘Why a Populist Left Should Rally Around a Green Democratic Transformation’ (2020) Open Democracy. https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/rethinking-populism/left-populiststrategy-post-covid-19/
55 Agius and others (n 11).
56 N Yuval Davis, Gender and Nation (Sage 1997).
57 Agius and others (n 11).
58 R Wodak (ed), The Politics of Fear: What Right-wing Populist Discourses Mean (Sage 2015).
59 C Norocel and K Pettersson, ‘Imbrications of Gender and Religion in Nordic Radical Right Populism’ (2020) Identities: Global Studies in Culture and Power <www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1070289X.2021.1990542>. M Sager and D Mulinari, ‘Safety for Whom? Exploring Femonationalism and Care-Racism in Sweden’ (2018) 68 Women’s Studies International Forum 149.
60 AM McCright and RE Dunlap, ‘Cool Dudes: The Denial of Climate Change among Conservative White Males in the United States’ (2011) 21 Global Environmental Change 1163, 1171.
61 See respectively, O Krange and others, ‘Cool Dudes in Norway: Climate Change Denial among Conservative Norwegian Men’ (2019) 5 Environmental Sociology 1, 1–11; and T Pederby, ‘Cool Dudes in Europe: Climate Change Denial amongst Conservative “White” Men’ thesis, Lund University, 2019) <https://lup.lub.lu.se/luur/download?func=downloadFile&recordOId=8975790&fileOId=8975794> accessed 11 January 2022.
62 Krange and others (n 61) 9.
63 C Harrington, ‘What is Toxic Masculinity and Why Does It Matter?’ (2020) 24 Men and Masculinities 345.
64 ‘Toxic masculinity’ has been distinguished by commentators ‘from “healthy” masculinity’. See e.g. M Salter, ‘The Problem with the Fight Against Toxic Masculinity’ The Atlantic (Sydney, 27 February 2019) 1 <www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2019/02/toxic-masculinity-history/583411/> accessed 11 January 2022.
65 R Sanders (n 52).
66 Agius and others (n 11).
67 Ibid.
68 A Elomäki and J Kantola, ‘Theorizing Feminist Struggles in the Triangle of Neoliberalism, Conservatism, and Nationalism’ (2018) 25(3) Social Politics 337. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxy013
69 Sanders (n 52); Agius and others (n 11); K Aggestam, A Bergman Rosamond and E Hedling, ‘Feminist Digital Diplomacy and Foreign Policy Change in Sweden’ (2021) 17 Place Branding and Public Policy <https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/s41254-021-00225-3> accessed 20 October 2021.
70 Ibid.
71 Korolczuk and Graff (n 10).
72 A Graff, ‘Report from the Gender Trenches: War against ‘Genderism’ in Poland’ (2014) 2(14) European Journal of Women’ Studies 431. See also A Graff ‘Gender Ideology: Weak Concepts, Powerful Politics’ (2017) 6(2) Religion and Gender 268; Korolczuk and Graff (n 10).
73 Korolczuk and Graff (n 10).
74 J Rankin, ‘Hungary Passes Law Banning LGBT Content in Schools and Kids’ TV’ The Guardian (London, 15 June 2021).
75 I Kwai, M Pronczuk and A Magdziarz, ‘Near-Total Abortion Ban Takes Effect in Poland, and Thousands Protest’ New York Times (27 January 2021).
76 President Ronald Reagan was the first president to enact the global gag rule in 1984. Since then every US president has had to take an executive decision on whether to enact or revoke the policy.
77 Agius and others (n 11).
78 Ibid.
79 K Jylhä, P Strimling and J Rydgren, ‘Climate Change Denial among Radical Right-Wing Supporters’ (2020) 12 Sustainability 1 <www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/23/10226> accessed 20 October 2021.
80 Agius and others (n 11). Daggett, ‘Petro-Masculinity’ (n 11); J Anshelm and M Hultman, ‘A Green Fatwa? Climate Change as a Threat to the Masculinity of Industrial Modernity’ (2014) 9(2) Norma: International Journal of Masculinity Studies 84.
81 Daggett, ‘Petro-Masculinity’ (n 11) 25–26.
82 Ibid. 27, where Daggett also refers to the emerging field of energy humanities and to relevant contributions by S Wilson, A Carlson and I Szeman (eds), Petrocultures: Oil, Politics, Culture (McGill-Queen’s University Press 2017); S LeMenager, Living Oil: Petroleum Culture in the American Century (Oxford University Press 2016).
83 Daggett, ‘Petro-Masculinity’ (n 11) 32.
84 C Daggett, ‘Energy and Domination: Contesting the Fossil Myth of Fuel Expansion’ (2021) 30 Environmental Politics 644.
85 Ibid. 645.
86 Ibid.
87 Ibid. 654. See also, more generally, C Daggett, The Birth of Energy: Fossil Fuels, Thermodynamics and the Politics of Work (Duke University Press 2019), esp Part II: Energy, Race and Empire, 107–86.
88 C Kinnvall and H Rydström (eds), Climate Hazards, Disasters, and Gender Ramifications (Routledge 2019).
89 Ibid. 6.
90 B Lubarda, ‘Beyond Ecofascism? Far-Right Ecologism (FRE) as a Framework for Future Inquiries’ (2000) 29 Environmental Values 713, 726.
91 See e.g. M Phelan, ‘The Menace of Eco-Fascism’ The New York Review (New York, 22 October 2018) <www.nybooks.com/daily/2018/10/22/the-menace-of-eco-fascism/> accessed 11 January 2022.
92 Lubarda (n 90) 720. See also, more generally, A Bramwell, Blood and Soil: Richard Walther Darré and Hitler’s ‘Green Party’ (Kensal Press 1985).
93 Some elements of far-right ecologism also feature at times in the ‘cool-dude effect’ examined earlier in the article: see esp McCright and Dunlap (n 60) and Krange and others (n 61).
94 B Forchtner, ‘Far Right Articulations of the Natural Environment: An Introduction’ in B Forchtner (ed), The Far Right and the Environment: Politics, Discourse, Communication (Routledge 2019). See also B Forchtner, ‘Nation, Nature, Purity: Extreme-Right Biodiversity’ (2019) 53 Patterns of Prejudice 11.
95 See e.g. the seminal work by M Kimmel and AL Ferber, ‘“White Men are This Nation”: Right-Wing Militias and the Restoration of Rural American Masculinity’ (2000) 65 Rural Sociology 582.
96 Lubarda (n 90) 719.
97 A Smith, Ethno-Symbolism and Nationalism: A Cultural Approach (Routledge 2009) ch 2.
98 Lubarda (n 90) 715.
99 Ibid.
100 Ibid.
101 See e.g. at the national level: Judgment of the French Counseil d’Etat of 1 July 2021 in Case No 427301 Commune de Grande-Synthe v France; Judgment of the German Constitutional Court of 29 April 2021 in Neubauer et al v Germany; Judgment of The Hague District Court of 26 May 2021 in Case C/09/571932 Milieudefensie et al v Royal Dutch Shell plc; Judgment of the Supreme Court of the Netherlands of 20 December 2019 in Case 19/00135 Urgenda Foundation v State of the Netherlands; and Judgment of the Colombian Supreme Court of 5 April 2018 in Future Generations v Ministry of the Environment and Others, Translations in English and key excerpts of the above cases are at www.climate-laws.org (accessed 13 March 2022). At the regional level see e.g. the submissions and amici curiae in relation to the case brought by Youth for Climate Justice currently pending at the European Court of Human Rights Duarte Agostinho and Others v Portugal and 32 Other States; Inter-American Court of Human Rights, ‘The Environment and Human Rights (State obligations in relation the environment in the context of the protection and guarantee of the rights to life and to personal integrity – interpretation and scope of Articles 4(1) and 5(1) of the American Convention of Human Rights)’, Advisory Opinion OC-23/17. In relation to the European Committee on Social Rights, see the findings of 7 June 2007 in No 30/2005 Marangopoulos Foundation for Human Rights (MFHR) v Greece; and the statement by the President of the Committee on ‘Environmental Protection and Human Rights’ (27 February 2020) <https://rm.coe.int/palmisano-statement-environment-humanrights-27-02-20/16809cbfec> accessed 13 March 2022. For relevant literature, see e.g. F Ekardt, ‘Freedom, Human Rights, Paris Agreement, and Climate Change: The German Landmark Ruling on Climate Litigation’ (2022) 64 Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 4. See also I Leijten, ‘Human Rights v Insufficient Climate Action: The Urgenda Case’ (2019) 37 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 112.
102 See e.g. UN Committee on the Rights of the Child, Chiara Sacchi et al v Argentina et al (8 October 2021) UN Doc CRC/C/88/D/106/2019 in relation to Communication No 106/2019. See also the pending petition of Torres Strait Islanders to the UN Human Rights Committee alleging violations stemming from Australia’s Inaction on Climate Change: see <http://climatecasechart.com/non-us-case/petition-of-torres-strait-islanders-to-the-united-nations-human-rights-committee-alleging-violations-stemming-from-australias-inaction-on-climate-change/> accessed 13 March 2022; and see the UN Special Procedures’ ‘Communication to the United States’ government’ of 15 September 2020 in relation to a complaint submitted by five US Indian tribes for failing to address climate displacement <http://climatecasechart.com/climate-change-litigation/non-us-case/rights-of-indigenous-people-in-addressing-climate-forced-displacement/> accessed 13 March 2022. For relevant literature, see e.g. T Eicke, ‘Climate Change and the Convention: Beyond Admissibility’ (2022) European Convention of Human Rights Law Review <https://brill.com/view/journals/eclr/aop/article-10.1163-26663236-bja10033/article-10.1163-26663236-bja10033.xml?casa_token=0QJJYftwk8oAAAAA:BJqmgOrOSoqHed8WECIK803gOsoAHR5gcgjKOsYenV-Z-TMuO2-Lu2ze_D9BENZ0EYgKGwCr> accessed 13 March 2022.
103 Important to reflect on how Kimmel and Ferber (n 95) identified the self-reliant and ‘self-made’ masculinity of white supremacists already in the 1990s.
104 OO Táíwò and B Cibralic, ‘The Case for Climate Reparations’ (10 October 2020) Foreign Policy <https://foreignpolicy.com/2020/10/10/case-for-climate-reparations-crisis-migration-refugees-inequality/> accessed 20 October 2021. See also S Mason-Case and J Dehm, ‘Redressing Historical Responsibility for the Unjust Precarities of Climate Change in the Present’ in B Meyer and A Zahar (eds), Debating Climate Law (Cambridge University Press 2021) 170–89. And see, more generally, OO Táíwò, Reconsidering Reparations (Oxford University Press 2022) esp ch 6.
105 R Mittiga ‘Political Legitimacy, Authoritarianism and Climate Change’ (2021) American Political Science Review (First View) 1 <www.cambridge.org/core/journals/american-political-science-review/article/political-legitimacy-authoritarianism-and-climate-change/E7391723A7E02FA6D536AC168377D2DE>.
106 Ibid.
107 Ibid.
108 J Whyte, The Morals of the Market: Human Rights and the Rise of Neoliberalism (Verso 2019) ch 5.
109 For a compelling historical analysis of the institution of ‘extraterritoriality’, see M Pal, Jurisdictional Accumulation: An Early Modern history of Law, Empires, and Capital (Cambridge University Press 2021) esp chs 6 and 7. See also E Blanco and A Grear, ‘Personhood, Jurisdiction and Injustice: Law, Colonialities and the Global Order’ (2019) 10 Journal of Human Rights and the Environment 86.
110 See Indigenous Environmental Network and OilChange International, ‘Indigenous Resistance against Carbon’ (ienearth.org, August 2021) 4–5 <www.ienearth.org/indigenous-resistance-against-carbon/> accessed 20 October 2021.
111 Mason-Case and Dehm (n 104) 170: Global North states’ ‘ … fossil fuel-driven pursuit of colonial industry, and continuing dominance in the finance and trade regimes, have left marginalized peoples and states with limited avenues to pursue sustainable modes of production and consumption that would foster their wellbeing. These practices, and more, effect racial and regional subjugation, at once and indivisibly, through the global political economy and the climate system, and they demand repair.’
112 Human Rights Council, ‘Report of the Independent Expert on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment, John H Knox’ (30 December 2013) UN Doc A/HRC/25/53.
113 P de Vilchez Moragues and A Savaresi, ‘The Right to a Healthy Environment and Climate Litigation: A Mutually Supportive Relation? (ssrn.com, 2021) <https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3829114> accessed 20 October 2021.
114 See S Jodoin and others, ‘Rights-based Approaches to Climate Decision-Making’ (2021) 52 Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 45, 49, where they argue that ‘ … a rights-based approach offers a compelling normative framework and methodology for ensuring that climate decisions are inclusive, equitable and effective and ultimately result in a just transition towards a carbon neutral world’.
115 CIEL, ‘Rights, Carbon, Caution: Upholding Human Rights under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement’ (February 2021) <www.ciel.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Rights-Carbon-Caution.pdf> accessed 20 October 2021.
116 For a compelling examination of carbon trading mechanisms, see J Dehm, Reconsidering REDD+: Authority, Power and Law in the Green Economy (Cambridge University Press 2021) esp chs 2 and 7.
117 D Gabor, ‘The Wall Street Consensus’ (2021) 52 Development and Change 429.
118 Ibid. 431.
119 Y Dafermos and others, ‘The Wall Street Consensus in Pandemic Times: What Does it Mean for Climate-Aligned Development?’ (2021) 42 Revue Canadienne d’études du développement 1.
120 For an analysis of the discussion paper issued by the Thun Group of Banks on the matter, see D de Felice, ‘Banks and Human Rights Due Diligence: A Critical Analysis of the Thun Group’s Discussion Paper on the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights’ (2015) 19 The International Journal of Human Rights 319.
121 J Britton Purdy and others, ‘Building a Law-and-Political-Economy Framework: Beyond the Twentieth-Century Synthesis’ (2020) 129 Yale Law Journal 1784.
122 See e.g. BS Chimni, International Law and World Order: A Critique of Contemporary Approaches (2nd ed, Cambridge University Press 2017) 507–9. See also Kotzé, ‘The Anthropocene’ (n 2); F Sultana, ‘Critical Climate Justice’ (2022) 188 The Geographical Journal 118; J Dehm, ‘Righting Inequality: Human Rights Responses to Economic Inequality in the United Nations’ (2019) 10 Humanity 443. For the view of UN Special Procedures, see e.g. Joint Statement of the United Nations Special Procedures Mandate Holders on the Occasion of the 24th Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC (6 December 2018) <www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2018/12/joint-statement-united-nations-special-procedures-mandate-holders-occasion-24th?LangID=E&NewsID=23982> accessed 13 March 2022. See also HRC, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment, John H Knox’ (19 January 2017) UN Doc A.HRC/34/49; P Alston, ‘The Parlous State of Poverty Eradication, Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights’ (2 July 2020) UN Doc A/HRC/44/40. For the UN Human Rights Treaty Bodies, see e.g. ‘Joint Statement on Human Rights and Climate Change’ (16 September 2019) <www.ohchr.org/en/statements/2019/09/five-un-human-rights-treaty-bodies-issue-joint-statement-human-rights-and?LangID=E&NewsID=24998> accessed 13 March 2022.
123 Britton Purdy and others (n 121) 1807.
124 BS Chimni, ‘The Struggle for Climate Justice and Digital Justice: A Preliminary Analysis of the Role and Limits of Human Rights’, keynote speech at the Pufendorf IAS symposium ‘Human Rights in Transition’ (25–26 October 2021) organised by the Research Theme on the Future of Human Rights.
125 See The Red Nation, The Red Deal: Indigenous Action to Save our Earth (Common Notions 2021) 8–38.
126 I Stoddard and others, ‘Three Decades of Climate Mitigation: Why Haven’t We Bent the Global Emissions Curve?’ (2021) 46 Annual Review of Environment and Resources 653.
127 Human Rights Council, ‘Climate Change and Poverty, Report of the Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights, Philip Alston’ (17 July 2019) UN Doc A/HRC/41/39, para 51. See also A Lustgarten, ‘Where Will Everyone Go?’ ProPublica and The New York Times Magazine (23 July 2020) <https://features.propublica.org/climate-migration/model-how-climate-refugees-move-across-continents/> accessed 20 October 2021.
128 Md Saidul Islam and Edson Kieu, ‘Sociological Perspectives on Climate Change and Society: A Review’ (2021) 9 Climate 7.