Obligation to Provide Sexuality Education: Reviewing Women’s Right to Sexual and Reproductive Health under UN Human Rights Treaties

ABSTRACT

Sexual and reproductive health is increasingly recognised under the international human rights framework, but women’s right to sexual and reproductive health is frequently undermined by service providers’ conscientious objections. This article contributes to another under-researched realm: some parents’ unwillingness to allow their children to engage in sexuality education. By analysing United Nations human rights treaties, this article argues that states have a positive obligation to provide sexuality education in order to realise women’s right to sexual and reproductive health. Given treaty bodies’ lack of explicit reference to parents’ conscientious objections against sexuality education, this article advances three approaches, which respond to conflicts between women’s right to sexual and reproductive health and parental rights, suggesting that states are left with little space to refuse the provision of sexuality education by citing parents’ conscientious objections.

KEYWORDS:

• UN human rights treaties
• women’s rights
• sexual and reproductive health
• sexuality education
• conscientious objection
• positive obligation

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author

Notes

1 UNFPA, ‘Sexual and Reproductive Health for All: Reducing Poverty, Advancing Development and Protecting Human Rights’, 9 (2010).

2 CESCR, ‘General Comment No 22: The Right to Sexual and Reproductive Health (Article 12 ICESCR)’ (2 May 2016) UN Doc E/C.12/GC/22, para 25.

3 United Nations, ‘Report of the International Conference on Population and Development’ (5–13 September 1994) UN Doc A/CONF.171/13, para 7.3.

4 United Nations, ‘Report of the Fourth World Conference on Women’ (4–15 September 1995) UN Doc A/CONF.177/20/Rev1, para 92.

5 CESCR, ‘General Comment No 14: the Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health’ (11 August 2000) UN Doc E/C.12/2000/4, para 1; CESCR, ‘General Comment No 22’ (n 2) paras 1, 25.

6 CESCR, ‘General Comment No 22’ (n 2) para 33.

7 Human Rights Committee, Yoon and Choi v Republic of Korea (3 November 2006) UN Doc CCPR/C/88/D/1321-1322/2004.

8 Center for Reproductive Rights, ‘Breaking Ground 2020: Treaty Monitoring Bodies on Reproductive Rights’ (28 January 2020) <https://reproductiverights.org/document/breaking-ground-2020-treaty-monitoring-bodies-reproductive-rights> accessed 20 May 2023.

9 CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 24: Article 12 CEDAW (women and health)’ (1999) UN Doc A/54/38/Rev1, ch I, para 11.

10 United Nations, ‘Report of the International Conference on Population and Development’ (n 3) paras 11.2–11.3.

11 Terry McGovern and Aziza Ahmen, ‘Equality in Health: Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights’ in Lawrence O Gostin and Benjamin M Meier (eds), Foundations of Global Health & Human Rights (Oxford University Press 2020) 307. Emphasis added.

12 M Campbell, ‘The Challenges of Girls’ Right to Education: Let’s Talk about Human Rights-Based Sex Education’ (2016) 20(8) The International Journal of Human Rights 1219, 1222.

13 UNCHR, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education’ (23 July 2010) UN Doc A/65/162, paras 6, 27.

14 UNESCO, ‘International Technical Guidance on Sexuality Education: an Evidence Informed Approach’ (2018) 16 <www.unfpa.org/sites/default/files/pub-pdf/ITGSE.pdf> accessed 20 May 2023.

15 See e.g. CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 36 on the Rights of Girls and Women to Education’ (27 November 2017) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GC/36, paras 68, 69(i); CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 34 on the Rights of Rural Women’ (7 March 2016) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GC/34, para 34; CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 35 on Gender-based Violence against Women’ (1 July 2017) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GC/35, para 30(a)(i); CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 37 on Gender-related Dimensions of Disaster Risk Reduction in the Context of Climate Change’ (13 March 2018) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GC/37 at para 67; CESCR ‘General Comment No 22’ (n 2) paras 28, 49(f), 63; CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 20 on the Implementation of the Rights of the Child During Adolescence’ (6 December 2016) UN Doc CRC/C/GC/20, para 59; CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 15 on the Right of the Child to the Enjoyment of the Highest Attainable Standard of Health’ (17 April 2013) UN Doc CRC/C/GC/15, para 69.

16 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 4 on Adolescent Health and Development’ (1 July 2003) UN Doc CRC/GC/2003/4, para 26.

17 CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 36’ (n 15) para 70; CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 20’ (n 15) para 48.

18 See e.g. CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 36’ (n 15) para 69(i); CEDAW and CRC Committees, ‘Joint General Recommendation No 31/ General Comment No 18 on the Rights of the Child on Harmful Practices’ (14 November 2014) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GC/31-CRC/C/GC/18, para 68; CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 35’ (n 15) para 30(a)(i); CESCR, ‘General Comment No 22’ (n 2) paras 9, 49(f), 63; CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 15’ (n 15) para 6.

19 CESCR, ‘General Comment No 14’ (n 5) para 34.

20 See e.g. CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 36’ (n 15) para 69(d).

21 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 3: HIV/AIDS and the Rights of the Child’ (17 March 2003) UN Doc CRC/GC/2003/3, para 16.

22 Ibid.

23 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 15’ (n 15) para 57; CEDAW and CRC Committees, ‘Joint General Recommendation No 31/ General Comment No 18’ (n 18) para 69(f).

24 CESCR, ‘General Comment No 14’ (n 5) para 16.

25 See e.g. CESCR, ‘Concluding Observation on Chile’ (1 December 2004) UN Doc E/C.12/1/Add.105, para 27; CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Barbados’ (24 July 2017) UN Doc CEDAW/C/BRB/CO/5-8, para 35(d); CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Tanzania’ (9 March 2016) UN Doc CEDAW/C/TZA/CO/7-8, para 36(a).

26 CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 24’ (n 9) para 18.

27 CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 30: Women in Conflict Prevention, Conflict and Post-Conflict Situations’ (1 November 2013) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GC/30, para 50.

28 Ibid.

29 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 3’ (n 21) para 8.

30 UNCHR, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Health’ (16 February 2004) UN Doc E/CN.4/2004/49, para 35.

31 Ibid.

32 CESCR, ‘Concluding Observation on Russia Federation’ (12 December 2003) UN Doc E/C.12/1/Add.94, para 62; CRC Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Indonesia’ (26 February 2004) UN Doc CRC/C/15/Add.223, para 59(c).

33 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 3’ (n 21) para 9.

34 CESCR, SC and GP v Italy (28 March 2019) UN Doc E/C.12/65/D/22/2017.

35 Ibid. para 10.3.

36 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Bosnia and Herzegovina’ (2 June 2006) UN Doc CEDAW/C/BIH/CO/3, para 36.

37 CRC Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Slovakia’ (20 July 2016) UN Doc CRC/C/SVK/CO/3-5, para 41(g).

38 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Bosnia and Herzegovina’ (2 June 2006) UN Doc CEDAW/C/BIH/CO/3, para 35; CESCR, ‘Concluding Observation on Honduras’ (21 May 2001) UN Doc E/C.12/1/Add.57, para 27; CRC Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Niue’ (24 June 2013) UN Doc CRC/C/NIU/CO/1, para 55.

39 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Lithuania’ (8 July 2008) UN Doc CEDAW/C/LTU/CO/4, para 25; CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 21 on Equality in Marriage and Family Relations’ (1994) UN Doc A/49/38, para 22.

40 ICESCR, art 3; CRC, art 2; CEDAW, art 3.

41 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Liechtenstein’ (3 December 2018) UN Doc CEDAW/C/LIE/CO/5/Rev1, para 22.

42 CESCR, ‘General Comment No 22’ (n 2) para 27.

43 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 20’ (n 15) para 27.

44 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Chile’ (12 November 2012) UN Doc CEDAW/C/CHL/CO/5-6, paras 17(a)–(b).

45 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Portugal’ (4 July 2022) UN Doc CEDAW/C/PRT/CO/8, paras 28, 29(c).

46 CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 19: Violence against Women’ (1992) UN Doc A/47/38, para 6.

47 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on South Sudan’ (23 November 2021) UN Doc CEDAW/C/SSD/CO/1, para 24.

48 Ibid. para 25(b); CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Norway’ (23 March 2012) UN Doc CEDAW/C/NOR/CO/8, para 31.

49 CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 24’ (n 9) para 18; CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 36’ (n 15) para 68.

50 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Serbia’ (14 March 2019) UN Doc CEDAW/C/SRB/CO/4, para 34(b).

51 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on El Salvador’ (9 March 2017) UN Doc CEDAW/C/SLV/CO/8-9, para 42.

52 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Armenia’ (25 November 2016) UN Doc CEDAW/C/ARM/CO/5-6, para 44; CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Belarus’ (25 November 2016) UN Doc CEDAW/C/BLR/CO/8, para 46.

53 CRC Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Russian Federation’ (25 February 2014) UN Doc CRC/C/RUS/CO/4-5, paras 35, 59(c).

54 CESCR, ‘General Comment No. 22’ (n 2) para 23; CESCR, ‘Concluding Observation on Poland’ (2 December 2009) UN Doc E/C.12/POL/CO/5, para 32.

55 CRC Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on the Republic of Korea’ (24 October 2019) UN Doc CRC/C/KOR/CO/5-6, para 42(f); CRC Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Poland’ (6 December 2021) UN Doc CRC/C/POL/CO/5-6, para 19(b).

56 CRC Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Portugal’ (25 February 2014) UN Doc CRC/C/PRT/CO/3-4, para 26(a).

57 European Parliament Resolution of 24 June 2021 on the Situation of Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights in the EU, in the frame of Women’s Health (2020/2215(INI)), para 26.

58 Ibid. paras 27, 29.

59 Ibid. para 32.

60 Ibid. paras 28, 66.

61 Ibid. para 28.

62 Ibid.

63 Explanatory Report (CETS 201) para 62.

64 Ibid. para 58.

65 Ibid. para 61.

66 UNCHR, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Education’ (n 13) paras 50–53.

67 Ibid. para 69.

68 Kerry H Robinson, Elizabeth Smith and Cristyn Davies, ‘Responsibilities, Tensions and Ways Forward: Parents’ Perspectives on Children’s Sexuality Education’ (2017) 17(3) Sex Education 333, 341–42.

69 Ibid.

70 Evert Ketting and Olena Ivanova, ‘Sexuality Education in European and Central Asia: State of the Art and Recent Developments’ (Federal Centre for Health Education, April 2018) 25 <www.bzga-whocc.de/fileadmin/user_upload/Dokumente/BZgA_ComprehensiveCountryReport_EN.pdf> accessed 29 May 2023.

71 Kyle Knight and Hillary Margolis, ‘Sex Education Under Fire Again in Poland’ (Human Rights Watch, 19 March 2019) <www.hrw.org/news/2019/03/19/sex-education-under-fire-again-poland> accessed 29 May 2023.

72 Ryan Thoreson, ‘LGBT Rights Under Renewed Pressure in Hungary’ (Human Rights Watch, 15 February 2022) <www.hrw.org/news/2022/02/15/lgbt-rights-under-renewed-pressure-hungary> accessed 29 May 2023.

73 Cristian G Cabrera, ‘Romanian Court Slams Law Banning Discussion of Gender in Education’ (Human Rights Watch, 14 December 2020) <www.hrw.org/news/2020/12/17/romanian-court-slams-law-banning-discussion-gender-education> accessed 29 May 2023.

74 Statutory Guidance on Relationships Education, Relationships and Sex Education (RSE) and Health Education 2021.

75 Ibid. para 50.

76 Ibid. paras 45–46.

77 More information can be found at <https://education.gov.scot/education-scotland/scottish-education-system/policy-for-scottish-education/policy-drivers/cfe-building-from-the-statement-appendix-incl-btc1-5/what-is-curriculum-for-excellence> accessed 29 May 2023.

78 Education (Scotland) Act 1980, s 28. Emphasis added.

79 Conduct of Relationships, Sexual Health and Parenthood Education in Schools, Scottish Government 2014, para 56,

80 Ibid.

81 Lourdes Sada, ‘Parental Pin: The Spanish Far-Right’s Fight to Control Public Education’ (Global Voices, 25 February 2020) <https://globalvoices.org/2020/02/25/parental-pin-the-spanish-far-rights-fight-to-control-public-education/> accessed 29 May 2023.

82 Donna Ferguson, ‘“We Can’t Give In”: The Birmingham School on the Frontline of Anti-LGBT Protests’ (Guardian, 26 May 2019) <www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2019/may/26/birmingham-anderton-park-primary-muslim-protests-lgbt-teaching-rights> accessed 29 May 2023.

83 Commissioner for Human Rights, ‘Comprehensive Sexuality Education Protects Children and Helps Build a Safer, Inclusive Society’ (21 July 2020) <www.coe.int/en/web/commissioner/-/comprehensive-sexuality-education-protects-children-and-helps-build-a-safer-inclusive-society> accessed 29 May 2023.

84 For example, sexuality education in primary schools has been made mandatory in Wales since September 2022, and a group of five parents initiated a lawsuit fighting for their parental right to withdraw their children from the courses: ‘Sex Education: Wales’ Curriculum Legal Challenge Launched’ (BBC, 16 November 2022) <www.bbc.com/news/uk-wales-63653576> accessed 30 May 2023.

85 See e.g. Human Rights Committee, Yoon and Choi v Republic of Korea (n 7); Human Rights Committee, Eu-min Jung et al v Republic of Korea (23 March 2010) UN Doc CCPR/C/98/D/1593-1603/2007; Human Rights Committee, Min-Jyu Jeong et al v Republic of Korea (24 March 2011) UN Doc CCPR/C/101/D/1642-1741/2007.

86 CESCR, ‘General Comment No 13: The Right to Education’ (8 December 1999) UN Doc E/C.12/ 1999/10, footnote 14; Article 4(2) of the ICCPR.

87 Emily J Brown, ‘When Insiders Become Outsiders: Parental Objections to Public School Sex Education Programs’ (2009) 59 Duke Law Journal 109, 124–25.

88 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Ireland’ (9 March 2017) UN Doc CEDAW/C/IRL/CO/6-7, para 38(c).

89 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland’ (14 March 2019) UN Doc CEDAW/C/GBR/CO/8, para 41; CRC Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland’ (12 July 2016) UN Doc CRC/C/GBR/CO/5, para 63(b).

90 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Ireland’ (n 88) para 38(c).

91 ‘States parties should ensure the rights of female and male adolescents to [SRH] education by properly trained personnel’: CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 24’ (n 9) para 18.

92 CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 36’ (n 15) para 45.

93 Ibid. para 27(e).

94 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Turkey’ (4 July 2022) UN Doc CEDAW/C/TUR/CO/8, para 44(f).

95 Ibid. para 44(e).

96 According to the General Comment, ‘culture’ encompasses ‘religion or belief systems’, which should also include parents’ conscientious objection: CESCR, ‘General Comment No 21: Right of Everyone to Take Part in Cultural Life’ (21 December 2009) UN Doc E/C.12/GC/21, para 13.

97 Ibid. para 18.

98 Ibid. para 19.

99 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 3’ (n 21) para 11.

100 Ibid.

101 Ibid.

102 CESCR, ‘General Comment No 22’ (n 2) para 44

103 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 15’ (n 15) para 69.

104 Ibid.

105 CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 24’ (n 9) para 18.

106 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Samoa’ (14 November 2018) UN Doc CEDAW/C/WSM/CO/6, paras 29(a), 30(a).

107 CESCR, ‘General Comment No 22’ (n 2) para 28.

108 CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 24’ (n 9) para 14.

109 Kjeldsen, Busk Madsen and Pedersen v Denmark App nos 5095/71, 5920/72, 5926/72 (ECHR, 7 December 1976).

110 Ibid. para 54.

111 Ibid.

112 Ibid.

113 Dojan and others v Germany, Admissibility decision, App no 319/08 (ECHR, 22 September 2011).

114 Ibid. 14–15.

115 Ibid. 15.

116 AR and LR v Switzerland, Admissibility decision, App no 22338/15 (ECHR, 18 January 2018).

117 Ibid. para 39.

118 Ibid. para 41.

119 Ibid. paras 43–45.

120 Dana-Sophia Valentiner, ‘The Human Right to Sexual Autonomy’ (2021) 22 German Law Journal 703, 711.

121 Ibid. 712.

122 UNCHR, ‘Report of the Special Rapporteur on the Right to Health’ (16 February 2004) UN Doc E/CN.4/2004/49, para 60.

123 McGovern and Ahmen (n 11) 321.

124 CEDAW Committee, ‘General Recommendation No 36’ (n 15) para 69(i). Emphasis added.

125 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Russian Federation’ (11 November 2021) UN Doc CEDAW/C/RUS/CO/9, para 37(b). Emphasis added.

126 CRC Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Ireland’ (1 March 2016) UN Doc CRC/C/IRL/Co/3-4, para 58(c); CRC Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Japan’ (5 March 2019) UN Doc CRC/C/JPN/CO/4-5, para 35(a). Emphasis added.

127 CESCR, ‘Concluding Observation on Republic of Korea’ (17 December 2009) UN Doc E/C.12/KOR/CO/3, para 31.

128 See Section 5.1 above.

129 Joel S Fetzer and J Christopher Soper, Confucianism, Democratization, and Human Rights in Taiwan (Lexington 2013) 43–44.

130 Sumie Okazaki, ‘Influences of Culture on Asian Americans’ Sexuality’ (2002) 39(1) Journal of Sex Research 34.

131 CEDAW and CRC Committees, ‘Joint General Recommendation No 31/ General Comment No 18’ (n 18) para 9.

132 Ibid.

133 This may lead to frequent pregnancies during adolescence: ibid. para 22.

134 Ibid. para 36

135 Ibid. para 31.

136 Ibid. para 60.

137 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Uganda’ (1 March 2022) UN Doc CEDAW/C/UGA/CO/8-9, para 24(a).

138 CEDAW Committee, ‘Concluding Observation on Azerbaijan’ (12 July 2022) UN Doc CEDAW/C/AZE/CO/6, paras 21, 22(b).

139 CRC Committee, ‘Report on the Fifth Session’ (28 January 1994) UN Doc CRC/C/24, 63.

140 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 7: Implementing Child Rights in Early Childhood’ (20 September 2006) UN Doc CRC/C/GC/7/Rev1, para 17.

141 Klaus D Beiter, The Protection of the Right to Education by International Law: Including a Systematic Analysis of Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (Brill 2005) 558–59.

142 Ibid.

143 Ibid.

144 Gerison Lansdown, ‘Article 5: The Right to Parental Guidance Consistent with the Evolving Capacity’ in Ziba Vaghri et al (eds) Monitoring State Compliance with the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child: An Analysis of Attributes (Springer 2022) 121.

145 Gerison Lansdown, The Evolving Capacities of the Child (UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre 2005) 4.

146 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 7’ (n 140) para 17.

147 Sheila Varadan, ‘The Principle of Evolving Capacities under the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child’ (2019) 27 International Journal of Children’s Rights 306, 329.

148 Lansdown, ‘Article 5’ (n 144) 122.

149 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 12: The Right of the Child to be Heard’ (20 July 2009) UN Doc. CRC/C/GC/12, para 84.

150 Holly Cullen, ‘Education Rights or Minority Rights?’ (1993) 7(2) International Journal of Law, Policy and the Family 143, 161.

151 Varadan (n 147) 307.

152 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 15’ (n 15) para 24.

153 AR and LR v Switzerland (n 116) para 41.

154 Lize Mills and Sabrina Thompson, ‘Parental Responsibilities and Rights during the “Gender Reassignment” Decision-making Process of Intersex Infants’ (2020) 28(3) International Journal of Children’s Rights 547.

155 Oluremi A Savage-Oyekunle and Annelize Nienaber, ‘Female Adolescents’ Evolving Capacities in Relation to Their Right to Access Contraceptive Information and Services: A Comparative Study of South African and Nigeria’ (2015) 48(1) Comparative and International Law Journal of Southern Africa 98.

156 CRC Committee, ‘General Comment No 7’ (n 140) para 17.

157 Beiter (n 141) 558

158 Ibid.