Capitalizing on Freedom of Expression for Creativity: A Case Study of Dawit Isaak Library, Malmö, Sweden

ABSTRACT

In democratic societies, cultural organizations function based on principles of freedom of expression. In non-democratic countries, promoting this fundamental value can be more challenging for such organizations and their actors. This paper explores potential interactions between structure and agency that can leverage freedom of expression, creating an environment conducive to development and creativity. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with human rights experts and employees of Dawit Isaak Library in Malmö, Sweden. The paper finds that capitalizing on freedom of expression is interdependent with other resources, and that financial autonomy is an essential aspect. This can be achieved through various means, including strategic partnerships, careful sponsorships, collaborations with like-minded cultural entities, and the establishment of independent financial foundations through endowment funds and crowdfunding initiatives. We argue that it is crucial to strengthen the efforts of institutions active in this domain while supporting individuals’ and groups’ agency to create change in non-democratic societies. The paper also emphasizes the role of cultural and symbolic capital, highlighting the significance of exercising caution and striking a balance between freedom of expression and other human rights principles to prevent conflicts and safeguard vulnerable groups’ rights.

KEYWORDS:

• freedom of speech
• creative industry
• banned books
• cultural capital
• censorship
• human rights

1. Introduction

The connections between culture and human rights are complex and dynamic. Those who make such connections must navigate the tensions between universalizing norms and local rules, address the representation and participation of cultural groups, and understand the multifaceted nature of culture itself.¹ Connections with human rights are arguably essential for current cultural production and preserving heritage and its authenticity. Attending to intangible cultural heritage and intellectual property can help safeguard cultural communities, traditions, and authenticity, while respecting heritage communities’ rights and practices fosters a sustainable and inclusive environment for cultural production and preservation.² This applies to creativity in its broadest sense.

Freedom of expression as a fundamental human right can be promoted through cultural production, with cultural institutions playing a vital role in amplifying creative voices that are banned or suppressed. Cultural products such as film festivals,³ music,⁴ and museums⁵ may combine creativity with raising awareness about human rights and driving social change. In this paper, we aim to to gain insight from the experiences of a creative institution and explore how its work can be enhanced to promote freedom of expression in harmony with human rights principles.

Many nations under the rule of religious and/or military dictatorships experience a substantial knowledge deficit, with limited production and dissemination of human rights knowledge exacerbated by strong opposition from political and/or religious bodies against universal, internationally grounded discussions on human rights.⁶ Libraries can emerge as crucial agents in bridging this gap and countering these oppressive forces, as well as promoting cultural heritage and nurturing creativity through cultural and artistic activities. Florida has highlighted libraries and library workers as integral creative class members,⁷ raising important questions about the interplay between freedom of expression, creativity, and capitalism. For example, how can the principles of freedom of expression be utilized to support and enhance creativity, particularly in the arts, where breaking established norms and conventions often requires a higher degree of freedom? It is thus helpful to examine the role of libraries in promoting cultural heritage, fostering creativity, and capitalizing on the value of literature.

The Dawit Isaak Library (DIL) is a public library in Malmö, Sweden, named in honor of Dawit Isaak, the Swedish-Eritrean author and journalist imprisoned by the Eritrean military regime since 2001 without trial due to his critical writings.⁸ DIL’s primary mission is to preserve and promote literature deemed to be at risk; it houses a diverse collection of books, music, and artworks that have been banned, censored, or destroyed by various regimes in an effort to control the dissemination of literature, particularly on matters of freedom. Many are authored by individuals and activists who have faced punitive measures such as imprisonment and displacement.⁹ The library was inaugurated on September 15, 2020,¹⁰ and is accessible to the public at the Malmö City Archive building, as well as through the Malmö Public Library catalogue and partner libraries in the European Union.

This study seeks to examine how the principles of freedom of expression can be capitalized upon to foster and enhance creativity. We focus on the DIL because it is an institution with extensive expertise in curating and promoting banned literature. To do so, we adopt a comprehensive case-study approach, bringing in fundamental concepts such as capitalization and the role of structure, agency, and geopolitics. The analysis is based on qualitative data obtained from in-depth semi-structured interviews with eight specialists, including four DIL employees and four experts in human rights, the culture industry, and creativity. Through this case study, the paper aims to address two primary research questions: How can freedom of expression be capitalized upon to nurture creativity? And what role do structure and agency play in facilitating that process?

2. Literature Review

The existing literature underscores the multifaceted contributions of public libraries to advancing human rights. Libraries act as gateways to education and employment, extend support for social services and e-government initiatives, and play crucial roles in emergency responses.¹¹ They also function as community anchors, promoting social justice and human rights through diverse activities.¹² Scholars specializing in human rights have advocated for libraries that emphasize access to information, freedom of expression, and education, align with human rights principles of non-discrimination, equality, participation, and accountability, and disseminate information about human rights.¹³ Libraries can offer diverse, accurate, and contemporary materials, ensuring accessibility without discrimination and catering to local communities’ specific needs. Beyond promotion, libraries can actively safeguard human rights by focusing on vulnerable groups such as national minorities and individuals with disabilities, gender equality, and good governance.¹⁴ We argue that the DIL approach aligns with these endeavors, integrating both the promotion and defense of human rights. It combines the strengths of a unified structure within a democratic nation with the capacities of the diverse agents working within the project.

Scholars have underscored the indispensable link between libraries and the fundamental human right to freedom of expression, exploring the ethical principles libraries must uphold to be sanctuaries for intellectual freedom. Libraries can serve as vital platforms for the dissemination of diverse ideas,¹⁵ and are uniquely positioned to safeguard freedom of thought, which constitutes a vital element of liberty but also serves as a means to secure and preserve liberty in its entirety. Libraries have consistently stood as cornerstones in constructing societies where citizens have access to information, enabling them to acquire the knowledge necessary for self-governance.¹⁶ They remain indispensable in nurturing informed, empowered communities capable of governing themselves effectively.

The literature also underscores librarians as central figures in safeguarding, defending, and promoting human rights, with the degree of their commitment to these principles resting on individual choice. While library administrators may occasionally permit human rights violations, frontline librarians have the agency to defend these fundamental rights.¹⁷ Huff-Hannon portrays librarians as gatekeepers, actively protecting constitutional rights such as free expression and privacy, especially when these rights face severe threats.¹⁸ Librarians can defend access to controversial or banned books, fight budget cuts, and initiate programs to engage citizens in public spaces. Former Executive Director of the US American Library Assocation Tracie D. Hall, in tracing the Association’s enduring fight for intellectual freedom up to the current “Unite Against Book Bans” campaign, has urged librarians not only to resist censorship but to expand that resistance.¹⁹ On the frontlines of contemporary neo-censorship, librarians have emerged as vital defenders of intellectual freedom, countering silence and erasure with active resistance efforts.

The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) has been a beacon of support for the global library and information profession for nearly a century, recognizing the integral role libraries play in advancing and protecting human rights. Positioning itself as the global voice of libraries, the IFLA holds freedom of access to information and freedom of expression as its core values,²⁰ and adopts resolutions that call for library workers to stand in solidarity with their colleagues facing persecution worldwide.²¹ These resolutions affirm that the right to know is intrinsic to freedom of expression and inherently linked to freedom of thought, conscience, and other fundamental human rights, with freedom of thought and expression essential prerequisites for accessing information.²² IFLA has also issued a comprehensive set of ethical guidelines for libraries that emphasizes that the primary mission of librarians and information workers is to ensure universal access to information.²³ Many librarians and information workers reject any denial or restriction of access to information, especially through censorship by states, governments, or religious and civil society institutions.

In light of existing literature that has examined libraries as advocates for human rights and positioned librarians as active agents in upholding them, often in defiance of their own administrations, this paper delves into the exceptional context of the DIL. Specifically designed to display banned books, it embodies the principles of freedom of expression and its curators and administrators staunchly champion human rights. It presents an unparalleled opportunity for exploration because it is a rare amalgamation of structural capabilities and agency-driven initiatives. Here, we aim to unravel a model that integrates the strengths of institutional structures with the proactive efforts of dedicated individuals. We shed light on a valuable framework that can be adapted and applied in diverse contexts, thus making a significant contribution to the discourse surrounding libraries, human rights, and freedom of expression.

3. Theoretical Background

3.1. Capitalization and freedom of expression for creativity

In sociology, the concept of capital has broad applications and can be used to demonstrate the economic, social, and cultural capabilities that bring about societal change. Individuals are said to possess four distinct types of capital: economic, cultural, social, and symbolic.²⁴ According to Bourdieu, capital is accumulated labor ‘that, when appropriated on a private, that is, exclusive, basis by agents or groups of agents, enables them to appropriate social energy in the form of reified or living labor.’²⁵ Capital can generate profits, replicating itself in its original or amplified form, and tends to endure over time. Thus the concept of capital extends beyond a narrow economic understanding and encompasses social and cultural benefits. Bourdieu also introduces the notion of cultural capital, which can exist in three forms: the embodied state as long-lasting dispositions of the mind and body, the objectified state as cultural goods (such as pictures, books, dictionaries, instruments, or machines), and the institutionalized state.²⁶ As in other communities, these forms are present in democracies, where cultural practices are carried out by three main parties: state cultural bodies, cultural NGOs, and individual cultural activists. We believe that in such societies these groups work toward cultural objectives and sustain their efforts by aligning them with democratic values.

Economic and cultural capital overlap, but economic capital primarily refers to an individual’s economic worth.²⁷ A set of social indicators may delineate the capacity for the material appropriation of tools used in material or cultural production as economic capital, while the capacity for the symbolic appropriation of these tools is considered cultural capital. In the various contexts in which cultural capital plays a role, the volume of cultural capital held by a person influences their overall chances of success. It helps to determine their position in social and political space, which can be reflected in national policy movements and extend to impacting international relations.

Linking the capitalization of freedom of expression, creativity, and the work of human rights agencies demands discussion of another significant concept put forth by Bourdieu, namely symbolic capital. Symbolic capital is the recognition and distinctions that agents can gain by converting material resources and differential profits into symbolic representations. It exists only in the relationships between distinct and distinctive properties, such as the body itself, language, and individuals or groups endowed with perceptual and appreciative frameworks that predispose them to recognize these properties.²⁸

Symbolic capital plays a central role in understanding the implications of research on intellectual freedom and, consequently, freedom of expression. It involves transforming relationships among individuals and groups based on economic or cultural capital into other resources, such as credibility or obligation. Symbolic capital is closely associated with notions of prestige and authority within society.²⁹ It can be seen as akin to Weber’s concept of charisma, but as a dimension of any form of power rather than as a specific form of power—‘that is, another name for legitimacy as a product of recognition or misrecognition’, or of the belief through which authoritative figures are endowed with prestige.³⁰ According to Bourdieu, constructing a simplified social field model can allow for conceptualizing each agent’s position in all possible competitive spaces.³¹ If an agent’s power is proportionate to their symbolic capital, i.e., the recognition they receive from others,³² this recognition must be relevant for individuals and organizations promoting and enhancing freedom of expression and creativity, locally or globally.

3.2. Creativity between structure and agency

Structure and agency profoundly influence human behavior. Structure encompasses the patterns of social relationships and institutional frameworks that establish order and predictability in a society. Agency is the individual and collective capacity for action and decision-making, which enables individuals and groups to shape and modify structures.³³ According to Giddens, the interplay between the two is dynamic and significantly influences our interactions within social and cultural contexts.³⁴ Agency is pivotal for comprehending how individuals and groups navigate and mold their environments, in turn contributing to a deeper understanding of societal dynamics and human behavior.

Creativity is often perceived as an individual endeavor attributed to individuals’ unique talents and abilities, but this fails to acknowledge the influence of structure and agency in shaping and constraining creative expression. In the context of creativity and freedom of expression, structures encompass the social, cultural, and institutional factors that limit possibilities. Conversely, agency refers to the individual capacities that enable creative action within these structures.³⁵ Understanding the relationship between creativity and freedom of expression therefore requires considering the role of structure and agency, as they both shape and restrict creative expression. McRobbie suggests that studies examining the formation of creative subjects often highlight childhood experiences, such as a passion for drawing, a creative family, or seeing impactful exhibitions.³⁶

Creativity is a cognitive capacity that arguably stands distinct from other mental functions and operates independently of intelligence. It involves the ability to synthesize information, necessitates self-assurance, and requires risk-taking.³⁷ These attributes align with the concept of agency, as expounded in Giddens’ theory, as they pertain to an individual’s capacity to act and make decisions. McRobbie argues that many artists are self-employed, highlighting their reliance on personal agency to pursue their creative endeavors without being dependent on external structures.³⁸ Overall, the relationship between creativity and freedom of expression suggests that while structures may shape and impose limitations on creative expression, an individual’s agency plays a vital role in realizing creative potential.

While creativity is commonly perceived as an individual phenomenon, agency in this context encompasses the ongoing flow of conduct, as defined by Giddens.³⁹ Desire for continuity is often intertwined with individual passion but necessitates a broader framework ensuring sustainability. Creativity often takes time to yield results, and self-motivation becomes significant as a result. To sustain creative work and extend its benefits to a broader audience, organizational structures are necessary.⁴⁰ If successful creators often establish and lead teams to facilitate systematic efforts, creativity must be acknowledged as a social activity that extends beyond individual contributions. Agency is thus significant for individuals, organizations, and teams that shape and perpetuate creative endeavors.

Freedom of expression holds a central position within democratic societies, where human rights have evolved from being a challenge to power to being ingrained within the power structures themselves.⁴¹ The practical realization of human rights at the national and international levels depends on interaction between structures and agency. It is through the reciprocal interaction between structure and agency that human rights and freedoms are safeguarded and upheld.

Definitions and understandings of structure and agency heavily depend on the context studied,⁴² and it is crucial to consider not only the question at hand in relation to power structures but also the allocation of responsibility within a given situation. Theories and theoretical frameworks within debates on power generally fall into one of categories, emphasizing either the constraints of prevailing structures on individual behavior or the agency of those who shape and influence these structures.⁴³

In societies where power is institutionalized, the behavior of individual agents is strongly influenced by institutional and social structures, along with their associated rules and norms.⁴⁴ These structures are formed by the consistent patterns of behavior exhibited by a group of individuals in specific situations and locations, effectively determining what actions are considered acceptable for others. Bourdieu argues that structures shape individuals not only through explicit rules but also through individuals’ personal histories and experiences within their environment.⁴⁵ If so, one can argue that in democratic societies, structures serve as a collective representation of agency, as they uphold and apply shared values to which both structures and agents are committed. When it comes to human rights advocacy, however, particularly in the realm of freedom of expression, there is a distinction between structures and agency. Exploring this distinction can prove valuable in leveraging the strengths of both aspects moving forward.

4. Methods

To understand how DIL effectively utilizes freedom of expression, we took an ethnographic approach to its application of capitalization for fostering creativity. We conducted semi-structured interviews to explore the DIL’s strategies and practices in capitalizing on freedom of expression and how they align with our theoretical understanding of capitalization and the relationship between structure, agency, and creativity. Our ethnographic approach yielded a comprehensive perspective on the DIL’s use of capitalization, as we observed its operation within the broader societal context and its contribution to promoting and safeguarding freedom of expression. Our research also extended to insights from experts in creativity and human rights, as well as from authors with direct experience of censorship. This enhanced our understanding of how the DIL harnesses freedom of expression to nurture creativity and its significance in the broader landscape of cultural and intellectual pursuits.

We used qualitative interviews to gather detailed and specific information about various aspects of the library and its creative processes, including individual and institutional capacities intersect. This allowed us to delve into the experiences and strategies of those involved in the library’s operations, as well as benefit from the expertise of professionals in the field. Semi-structured interviews meant we could balance a guideline for questioning with flexibility, scalability, and elaboration on aspects and details that emerged.⁴⁶ We could adapt the order and content of the questions based on the responses received, exploring specific areas in more depth and adjusting each interview’s flow accordingly.⁴⁷ The interviews were informed by our literature review, which provided a foundational framework, but we also welcomed the emergence of new issues and insights during the conversations, which enriched and added nuance to our understanding of the library’s practices and strategies.

Our sampling approach was pragmatic and flexible, aiming to achieve an adequate sample size that sufficiently addresses the research question.⁴⁸ We collected data until reaching saturation, meaning that new participants were continuously included in the study until the data set became complete, as indicated by data replication or redundancy. In general, saturation is reached when the researcher has gathered enough data to the point where no new information is being obtained.⁴⁹ In our study, we made a conscious effort to ensure representation within the DIL community and aimed for a balanced gender distribution, as reflected in Table 1. We conducted eight interviews: four with individuals working or affiliated with the DIL, and four with experts in the field of human rights and banned literature. One of the latter group was an individual working in the creative industry with personal experience of censorship. Seven interviews were conducted over Zoom; one was conducted in person in Malmö City. Data collection for this study took place between November 20, 2022 and January 10, 2023—a sufficient timeframe to gather comprehensive and insightful data.

Table 1. Information of the study participants

Pseudonym	Gender	Work	City	Years of Experience
Charlotte	Female	Academic researcher	Lund	30
Jack	Male	Cultural project admin	Malmö	10
James	Male	Human rights researcher	Paris	20
Louise	Female	Cultural project admin	Malmö	15
Maria	Female	Cultural project leader	Malmö	10
Michael	Male	Cultural project leader	Tallinn	7
Najm	Male	Cultural producer	Malmö	40
Sara	Female	Cultural project admin	Malmö	23

Ethical considerations are of utmost importance in our research, and we took several steps to ensure participants’ protection and wellbeing. We obtained informed consent from each participant before conducting any interviews. The consent form outlined the purpose of the research and the voluntary nature of participation and allowed participants to grant permission to record the interview. We did not collect personal information, and we assigned pseudonyms to participants instead of using their real names to provide an extra layer of protection. Regarding data analysis, we initially transcribed the interviews and incorporated reflective notes taken during observation. Building upon our theoretical framework, we followed a systematic process of profiling, organizing, coding, and decoding the collected data. This helped us identify patterns, themes, and insights in the data, allowing us to draw meaningful conclusions.

5. Findings

5.1. Toward financial autonomy

Funding is a primary consideration when planning for the future. The DIL, along with other cultural projects, relies on funding from various sources, such as Malmö City, Skåne region, and national levels, and is currently exploring the possibility of obtaining grants from the EU. Whether national or transnational, financing options are influenced by political dynamics, and oscillations between political parties and ideologies as a result of elections can impact funding decisions. Localally, a shift toward right-wing politics may affect the financial support for specific organizations, and this ican also extend to the EU: it is a complex bureaucratic institution, but the presence of right-wing politicians in some EU countries can influence its financial policies, as highlighted by Michel, a cultural project leader promoting banned books in Tallinn:

The financial landscape within the EU is politically sensitive and complex, which has led to my lack of interest in pursuing EU funding. I am not seeking EU funding for this year or the next, due to concerns regarding the influence of certain far-right MEPs who have successfully lobbied for rule changes that have resulted in a lack of available funding.

Because relying solely on partial grants or funding tied to political trends makes an institution vulnerable to uncertainties and limitations, we contend that it is imperative to explore alternative approaches to funding that go beyond traditional frameworks—seeking a combination of economic capitalization and commitment to creative values within the framework of human rights and freedom of expression. One potential solution, as suggested by Maria, a project leader at DIL, is to establish strategic partnerships with economic entities that share the same values. By forging such alliances, DIL can secure sustainable financial support while maintaining its principles and objectives.

Previously, seeking sponsorship from the private sector was not acceptable for cultural institutions and other public sector entities in Malmö City. This restriction had political and historical roots. However, the city’s stance has evolved, and such collaborations with the private sector are more permissible. It is now encouraged for cultural institutions, including DIL, to engage in partnerships and collaborations with the private sector for financial support. This shift in policy allows for greater opportunities to establish fruitful relationships and secure the necessary funding to support creative projects and activities.

While sponsorship can be a viable long-term funding solution, any sponsorship arrangement must be carefully designed to preserve the project’s core values. Collaboration should be based on a shared vision for sustainable cultural work and freedom of expression. Alignment of values must be prioritized in selecting partnership opportunities, rather than solely focusing on economic goals. Partnerships should foster a relative consensus and enable the pursuit of a shared vision, so that a project can secure financial support while maintaining integrity and commitment to its principles.

Organizations can rely on subscriptions to maintain essential operations and acquire additional funding. Subscriptions and donations can support specific projects, and agents’ willingness to contribute can assist in the management and execution of cultural and artistic endeavors. However, this appears most feasible in democratic countries with sound governance, where such structures can function as intended and ensure the projects’ sustainability. In non-democratic countries, using such funds may raise suspicions and potentially be used to justify the suppression of freedom of expression. Charlotte, a researcher specializing in social affairs, civil society organizations, and sustainability, remarks:

In the Global South, NGOs that are paid by membership fees or private contributions will be sponsored by the general elites, the people in those countries who are the most privileged for one reason or another. And these people may have good intentions, very good motives may actually drive them, but it still means that the perspectives which are selected are those which are relevant to their worldview, which is determined by their situation of privilege.

The establishment of strategic collaborations among different entities in the field can also support the work of cultural organizations. Organizations can collaborate to ensure adequate financial resources and continuity. Such collaborations can be effective when certain organizations focus on fundraising or implementing paid cultural projects while others prioritize fostering creativity and advocating for freedom of expression. Enhancing financial sustainability and capitalization for organizational work is thus achieved through strategic cooperation among structures, particularly those that share similar cultural values.

Most of the 8 interviewees said that independence is a critical aspect of sustainable cultural work. Relying on funding from organizations, governments, or international agencies was viewed as a temporary solution that can negatively impact the quality of work and its overall outcome, so establishing an independent financial foundation is essential. This realization prompted some activists to explore alternative and creative solutions, such as establishing their own businesses to generate income for their organizations. For instance, Michel suggested that organizations could sell books and merchandise and offer services like student or corporate tours to partially support their budget. We contend that having a dedicated team within an organization is vital to securing funding. This approach enables cultural activities and advocacy for freedom of expression to operate independently without diverting resources from the core mission. The search for funding should be treated as a separate task that ensures the financial independence of cultural organizations.

5.2. Social capital

The interviewees agreed on the significance of freedom of expression in facilitating positive societal transformation. It is widely recognized as crucial for democracy, constructive discourse, and even the cultivation of originality and creativity. Initiatives aimed at driving social change through creativity often originate from individuals who possess the agency to initiate their ideas. In democratic societies, these individual efforts can evolve into institutional endeavors through supportive structures, resulting in both national and international social change. In non-democratic countries, the responsibility for driving change rests heavily on individuals such as activists, journalists, intellectuals, and others who strive for positive societal transformation. These individuals often face repression from the government or other institutions that oppose change. Yet challenging circumstances can fuel creativity, as writers and authors devise innovative methods of communication to reach audiences, making it difficult for censors to detect messages. As Najm, a writer and author, recounts, some of his works were banned under a dictatorship:

I vividly remember working in my homeland under a dictatorial regime, where censorship severely restricts our ability to express our ideas. However, these limitations sparked our creative impulse to find alternative solutions. We developed a tendency to innovate and invent new means of expression, leading us to explore what can be described as a coded language between the creator and the recipient. Using various types of codes, we were able to convey our messages in ways that evaded the grasp of censors. These coded expressions became a powerful tool for communication, allowing us to share our thoughts and ideas with like-minded individuals while bypassing the suppressive mechanisms in place. Through this creative process, we found a way to keep our voices alive and our messages circulating, even in the face of oppressive censorship.

Highlighting the resilience and ingenuity of agents who find ways to express themselves creatively despite oppressive conditions is of course not meant to suggest that dictatorship is beneficial or that non-democratic societies are more creative.

Within a democratic society, we argue that freedom of expression is crucial for fostering comprehensive creative transformation on a larger scale. Understanding how freedom of expression operates and is promoted in such a society can be exemplified by examining the functioning of the DIL, an inclusive space for making banned writings and arts accessible to local and international readers. Unlike other libraries, DIL does not require membership to access or borrow materials, and its exhibitions are targeted at a wide audience. While it specifically aims at young people and children as part of the Malmö City’s Culture Department, there are currently few activities or programs for young people to participate in during their free time. Most visits to the library by young people occur through their schools, where teachers arrange guided tours and small lectures, with each student receiving a book of their choice at the end of the visit. The library has initiated an outreach program in collaboration with local schools to further engage young people and recognize their role in shaping the future. This program facilitates school visits to the library, which take place three to four times per week, accommodating class sizes of around 20 students per class. This approach reflects the library’s commitment to educating young people who may bring about positive change in society. Jack, a representative of the DIL, explains:

Part of the city’s target audience has been the youth and children, and to reach them, the DIL has implemented an outreach program. […]. This approach has proven to be very positive in terms of promoting the library and raising awareness among young people. By collaborating with schools, the DIL has been able to create opportunities for children to learn about and explore the library’s resources, fostering a deeper understanding and appreciation for banned writings and arts. This outreach program serves as an effective advertisement for the library, showcasing its value and relevance to the younger generation.

The approach DIL takes to promoting freedom of expression aligns with the principles and workings of a democratic society. Efforts to foster freedom of expression are integrated into various aspects of this society, including the educational system, where the development of young minds is nurtured to embrace a diverse range of opinions and engage in constructive dialogue. The overarching objective is to advance democracy, a sentiment shared by Maria and echoed by the majority of participants. Louise, a project administrator at the library, provides further insights:

Without free speech, individuals are constrained by the limitations imposed by a society that lacks this fundamental freedom. In such a restrictive environment, the ability to be inspired by the ideas and perspectives of others becomes severely limited. Intellectual freedom is essential for sharing ideas, exploring different viewpoints, and accessing creative works in various forms, whether they be literature, art, or media. When individuals are denied the opportunity to read or engage with the creations of others without restrictions, the flow of ideas and the exchange of knowledge becomes stifled. Therefore, the absence of intellectual freedom hampers the growth of society and prevents the free expression of thoughts and ideas.

Promoting freedom of expression and democracy should be done within the human rights framework so that they are balanced with other fundamental human rights, as highlighted by Michel in relation to discussions within the EU around challenges posed by the rise of hate speech and the potential exploitation of freedom of expression to propagate hostile narratives against certain minority groups. There is genuine concern about misusing freedom of expression to perpetuate discrimination and harm. To address this, freedom of expression is to be approached with a nuanced perspective, considering its implications in relation to human rights, inclusivity, and the wellbeing of all individuals. As George, a researcher specializing in human rights, states:

Human rights specialists play a critical role in establishing a democratic environment that effectively balances and upholds all human rights. It is crucial to avoid a situation where one set of rights dominates over others, as such imbalances can lead to conflicts and undermine the overall human rights framework. The goal is to create a harmonious and inclusive society where all individuals can exercise their rights without infringing upon the rights of others. By approaching human rights with caution, specialists can navigate complex situations and address potential conflicts, striving to protect and promote the full spectrum of human rights for the benefit of everyone.

Although achieving this balance can be challenging, DIL provides banned books without evaluating their content; specialists and researchers assess whether the books’ content meets certain standards. This approach is rooted in safeguarding freedom of expression, which is crucial for societal progress and protecting other fundamental freedoms—and extends to promoting social change in democratic countries, where certain forms of censorship can impede progress and restrict development in areas such as climate protection or the rights of marginalized communities.

Social capitalization requires creating opportunities for cooperation, dialogue, and the establishment of common spaces for public engagement. Accordingly, DIL endeavors to provide platforms that facilitate dialogue across cultures, languages, and generations. By upholding freedom of expression, it aims to foster conversations among individuals with diverse viewpoints. Najm argued that approaching banned literature from a perspective of inclusivity can pave the way for the emergence of shared spaces for discussion and reflection. Investing in the safety and wellbeing of writers and creators who face threats and danger can serve as a social, political, and literary lesson, inspiring individuals to seek solutions through a deeper understanding of differing perspectives. Moreover, such investments create opportunities for cooperation and collaboration between various entities, facilitating the exploration of innovative creative pathways.

5.3. Cultural capital

Promoting banned books helps foster creativity and knowledge but it can be accompanied by risks and controversies, as it necessitates striking a balance between unrestricted freedom of expression and establishing clear standards that differentiate between freedom of expression, incitement or hate speech, and criminal behavior. Despite these challenges, this approach offers numerous advantages, including the promotion of multiculturalism and linguistic diversity, as well as the expansion of opportunities for intellectual exploration and curiosity.

DIL’s collection serves as its central focus, showcasing banned books, music, and arts in a diverse range of languages, including Swedish, English, Danish, Norwegian, Portuguese, French, Russian, Ukrainian, Arabic, and Persian. Situated in Malmö, Sweden’s third-largest city and home to residents from approximately 180 countries speaking around 150 languages, DIL allows Malmö residents to engage with literature written in their native languages, thereby proclaiming that Swedish society embodies principles of freedom of expression, knowledge, development, and creativity.

Its collection of books continually expands through new acquisitions. The library strives to reflect the interests and concerns of society as a whole. For instance, during Black History Month it highlights books by Black writers or about Black individuals. DIL seeks to broaded its collection beyond the English-speaking world and include banned books from around the globe, which requires ongoing collaboration with individuals who speak various languages. This is also an effective step toward reaching a wider audience. While recognizing the magnitude of an even broader perspective, of engaging with the global audience of banned literature, the library should continue to enhance its efforts, progressing from local to national and international dimensions. The city funds the project primarily for the benefit of its residents, so arguably expansion beyond that level should secure other resources and logistical arrangements. The interplay between economic and technological elements must be considered to achieve this. Since the library’s opening, the significant development has been the growth of its network, which facilitates ongoing creative work, including sourcing books in different languages. Louise spoke of the encouraging initial reactions after the library’s opening:

The positive reaction we received during the opening and the continued interest from people confirmed the success of our plan. Seeing the genuine interest and enthusiasm generated by our project was truly gratifying. We were especially thrilled when we started receiving inquiries and contacts from individuals interested in what we do.

Working in the field of banned books provides an opportunity to go beyond simply providing access; it allows for exploring the underlying reasons behind book bannings through various activities. Michel emphasized that this work differentiates itself from other databases or platforms, while Jack highlighted that DIL focuses on promoting the work of writers who have experienced censorship and danger. By sharing their stories and underscoring the significance of freedom of expression, DIL creates a symbiotic relationship between cultural content and the fundamental right to free speech. This fosters a shared understanding of the importance of free expression for all individuals, reinforcing commitments to safeguard it in society.

5.4. Symbolic capital

Our data reveals two integral uses of symbolic capital: first, in advocating freedom of expression and understanding its contextual significance, and second, leveraging its momentum to promote freedom of expression and cultivate creativity, involving individuals and organizations. International organizations and influential activists, and the symbiotic interplay between them, are vital in advancing freedom of expression. As an NGO, DIL relies on the unwavering backing of individuals and organizations who share its beliefs and values. It has forged successful partnerships with two key organizations, ICORN (International Cities of Refuge Network) and PEN International, which have national and international recognition. ICORN is an independent organization that brings together cities and regions to offer shelter to writers and artists at risk, and its mission extends beyond freedom of expression to other democratic values. ICORN creates intricate networks that connect cities, cultural organizations, and artistic and cultural activists, fostering an environment conducive to the flourishing of creative freedom.⁵⁰ Similarly, PEN International unites writers, journalists, and poets who employ the written word to promote ideas, in the belief that sharing ideas builds bridges of understanding between people from different backgrounds and cultures.⁵¹

This collaborative network enables DIL to be a thriving hub that nurtures freedom of creativity. Practical activities, such as providing publications for the collection, delivering lectures, and participating in library events, are its tangible manifestations. In transcending cultural boundaries and language barriers, we believe that DIL’s cooperative efforts support at-risk creators and foster creativity. Without these organizations’ international recognition and support, the network would not have the same effectiveness or impact; their involvement lends credibility to and amplifies DIL’s work.

The individuals we interviewed agree on the significance of this cooperation, highlighting two matters that require particular attention: directly addressing and confronting censorship by separating individual cases from the broader issue, and taking extreme caution when dealing with international fame to ensure a clear differentiation between global media recognition and the core objective. Sarah, a feminist activist and cultural administrator, emphasized focusing on censorship and actively confronting it. She explained that a broader conversation can be initiated by engaging in discussions about the reasons for banning specific books. Sarah believes that this is crucial for expanding the horizons of creativity:

We need to go beyond the ban by discussing the reasons behind the books being banned. We amplify their voices and those of the writers. It opens up a broader discourse on censorship, its associations, why it occurs, and the implications of unrestricted censorship. Through this approach, we can foster a deeper understanding.

One challenge in addressing censorship is reaching individuals who have achieved international recognition for their work yet still face censorship. As Najm pointed out, international recognition in political positions does not necessarily translate to recognition in the creative or knowledge fields. This introduces the risk of political bias, as efforts to create cooperation could lean toward a specific political direction. This bias, whether political or intellectual, can be exploited by media outlets serving particular political or ideological agendas, often contradicting the idea of freedom of expression. Charlotte also affirmed this point in her interview.

Moreover, it is crucial to be cautious of false international recognition, as Michel highlights. Some individuals may fabricate their prohibition or banned status to gain international fame for their work. Clear criteria and determinants should therefore guide our approach, focusing on the foundational principles of establishing partnerships that confront censorship itself. Simultaneously, we argue that we should maintain a focus on creative works and the inspiring stories of creators who have reached audiences based on the merit of their work, independent of their political or ideological positions.

6. Discussion and Conclusion

Previous studies have underscored the crucial role of libraries in advancing⁵² and protecting human rights.⁵³ Librarians are recognized as pivotal figures in preserving, defending, and promoting these rights. The IFLA resolution and recommendations on the ethics of libraries are based on these efforts. In this context,⁵⁴ we posit that DIL stands out as an exceptional institution. Initially conceived as a hub for breaking down barriers to knowledge, it now serves as a platform to amplify the voices of banned writers globally. It provides educational spaces for young individuals and fosters cultural diversity, and it defies censorship, even in some democratic nations, by making banned books accessible irrespective of their content. Operated by a dedicated group of librarians deeply involved in the field, DIL works to deliver suppressed voices to readers. Its effectiveness is enhanced by the direct contributions of banned writers who participate in the library’s activities.

Drawing on Bourdieu’s concept of economic capital,⁵⁵ our analysis emphasizes the significance of financial resources for the sustainability of such a project. To attain sustainability, it must seek long-term sources of funding rather than relying solely on support from donor institutions, whether local, national, or international. Organizations that depend on external funding face various limitations,⁵⁶ and are vulnerable to negative impacts resulting from political changes that can disrupt funding stability.⁵⁷ Pursuing financial independence requires a multifaceted approach, including: 1) Strategic partnerships: An organization should actively seek strategic collaborations with economic entities that share its core values by forming alliances with like-minded partners. These partnerships should be rooted in a shared vision, prioritizing the sustainability of cultural work and promoting freedom of expression. 2) Sponsorship and subscriptions: Libraries can explore sponsorship opportunities from the private sector. Carefully designed sponsorship arrangements based on shared values can provide long-term financial stability, while subscriptions and donations can support specific projects. However, such methods must be approached cautiously, especially in non-democratic contexts, to prevent misuse and maintain organizational integrity. 3) Innovative ventures: Libraries can consider innovative revenue streams, such as establishing businesses within the organization, selling books and merchandise related to their initiatives, and offering specialized services like student or corporate tours. By having a dedicated team for this, the core mission of cultural activities and freedom of expression advocacy can remain uncompromised. 4) Strategic collaborations: Collaboration with other cultural organizations with similar values can enhance financial sustainability. Pooling resources and expertise can lead to efficient fundraising and project implementation, ensuring the continuity of cultural endeavors. 5) Establishing an independent financial foundation: Recognizing the importance of financial independence, libraries should explore avenues to establishing their own financial foundation. This could involve the creation of endowment funds, fundraising campaigns, or crowdfunding initiatives to build a stable financial base. A team dedicated to fundraising and financial management can drive these efforts, ensuring the autonomy of cultural activities.

Human rights are shaped by historical circumstances and profoundly impacted by geopolitical factors, economic shifts, and social and cultural changes.⁵⁸ Freedom is intricately intertwined with other democratic values and fosters creativity. When creative individuals are given the opportunity to express themselves freely, they can produce innovative and impactful work.⁵⁹ Building on this understanding, our data analysis aimed to identify suitable means to democratize creativity and ensure access to information. People living in states where freedom is easily accessible, such as Sweden and many parts of Europe, should not take it for granted. In many other places, individuals live under censorship, particularly when discussing sensitive topics like politics and significant societal issues. People should thus be educated about how artists, including journalists and musicians, are targeted by their governments. We emphasize the need to combine cultural and social capitalization to achieve beneficial outcomes. We believe that sharing suppressed voices and banned literature, especially those from dictatorial countries, bolsters democracies. We propose developing more models like the DIL to make them accessible worldwide, including with online platforms, to break bans and facilitate knowledge dissemination.

Human and symbolic capital are essential resources for publishers. The former consists of the expertise and knowledge of their staff, while the latter is the prestige and recognition gained through their role as cultural intermediaries.⁶⁰ Book-related activities like book fairs help capitalize on knowledge and reinforce the publishing industry's economic, social, and symbolic values.⁶¹ In bringing together banned literature and its enthusiasts, DIL deserves international recognition for its commitment to freedom of expression and creativity. Its public collection in Malmö showcases banned books in multiple languages, emphasizing the city’s dedication to freedom of expression and multiculturalism. Its expanding collection and focus on censorship contributes to a deeper understanding of the issue. We posit that DIL’s commitment to supporting censored writers strengthens the vital connection between cultural content and freedom of expression. DIL not only provides access to banned content but also actively introduces banned writers to readers. Additionally, it hosts some of these writers and collaborates with other organizations to shield them from persecution, hoping to create a climate in which creative expression can flourish unimpeded.

There is still work to be done to achieve global recognition for free creative expression. DIL can contribute to this goal because it showcases significant literature that derives its importance not only from its controversial nature but also from its creativity. We count among these books the Harry Potter series, The Brothers Lionheart, and The Da Vinci Code, and as the DIL asks: “Did you know that Harry Potter is banned in various places in the world, and that The Brothers Lionheart was banned in Czechoslovakia? That The Da Vinci Code was banned in Iran, Egypt and the Vatican City?”⁶² International collaboration to promote banned books could not only help dismantle these bans but also support freedom of expression. DIL can navigate potential false international recognition by leveraging the international recognition of banned authors to secure funding to host them. Furthermore, reaching out to these authors can enable the library to advocate against book bans both locally and on the international stage.

Previous research emphasizes the need to promote human rights in a manner that does not violate other rights, including in situations where certain practices or actions are restricted or prohibited. By considering the broader impact and potential consequences, we can avoid unintentionally infringing upon the rights of individuals or specific groups. Striking a balance allows us to uphold human rights principles while protecting the rights and freedoms of all individuals involved.⁶³ Our interviews show that caution must be exercised when using cultural codes that carry specific connotations to prevent misinterpretation of a project’s intentions. DIL is dedicated to promoting freedom and creative expression for everyone, irrespective of their ethnic, religious, or cultural background. It is essential to approach the project professionally and effectively utilize symbolic capital to avoid any incitement against particular groups, particularly when political and intellectual ideologies intersect with creative works.

Acknowledgments

We would like to express our acknowledgment to the Dawit Isaak Library staff for their cooperation during the research process. Their willingness to offer their time for interviews and to respond to our questions was invaluable to the success of our project. Thank you for your dedication and support.

Notes

1 Stener Ekern and Peter Bille Larsen, ‘Introduction: The Complex Relationship Between Human Rights and World Heritage’ (2023) 41 Nordic Journal of Human Rights 1 <https://doi.org/10.1080/18918131.2023.2192063>.

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3 Alexandra Colta, ‘Creative and Emotional Labour: Programming Human Rights Film Festivals as Practice-Led Ethnography’ [2019] Alphaville: Journal of Film and Screen Media 128.

4 Ingrid Monson, Freedom Sounds: Civil Rights Call out to Jazz and Africa (Oxford University Press 2007).

5 Richard Sandell, ‘Museums and the Human Rights Frame’ in Richard Sandell and Eithne Nightingale (eds), Museums, equality and social justice (Routledge 2012).

6 Mohammed Almahfali, Mark LeVine and Abdulghani Muthanna, ‘Mapping Arabic Human Rights Discourse: A Thematic Review’ (2024) International Journal for Human Rights 197-219.

7 Richard Florida, The Rise of the Creative Class–Revisited: Revised and Expanded (Basic Books (AZ) 2014).

8 Nicole Hirt and Abdulkader Saleh Mohammad, ‘By Way of Patriotism, Coercion, or Instrumentalization: How the Eritrean Regime Makes Use of the Diaspora to Stabilize Its Rule’ (2018) 15 Globalizations 232 <https://doi.org/10.1080/14747731.2017.1294752>.

9 Dawit Isaak Library, ‘Forbidden Music’ (2022) <https://malmo.se/Uppleva-och-gora/Arkitektur-och-kulturarv/Malmo-stadsarkiv/Stadsarkivets-bibliotek/Dawit-Isaak-biblioteket/Forbjuden-musik.html> accessed 22 November 2022.

10 Vladimir Oravsky, ‘DAWIT ISAAK-BIBLIOTEKET – Yttrandefrihetsbibliotek På Malmö Stadsarkiv’ (JPS Media, 16 September 2020) <https://www.jpsmedia.se/2020/09/16/dawit-isaak-biblioteket-yttrandefrihetsbibliotek-pa-malmo-stadsarkiv/> accessed 19 September 2022.

11 Paul T Jaeger, Natalie Greene Taylor and Ursula Gorham, Libraries, Human Rights, and Social Justice: Enabling Access and Promoting Inclusion (Rowman & Littlefield 2015).

12 Ursula Gorham, Natalie Greene Taylor and Paul T Jaeger, ‘Human Rights, Social Justice, and the Activist Future of Libraries’, Perspectives on Libraries as Institutions of Human Rights and Social Justice, vol 41 (Emerald Group Publishing Limited 2016) <https://doi.org/10.1108/S0065-283020160000041017>.

13 Helena Olsson, Lena Olsson and Karl Adam Tiderman, Developing a Human Rights Library (Gabriel Stein and Rhona Smith eds, Raoul Wallenberg Institute 2015).

14 Luka Glušac, ‘Local Public Libraries as Human Rights Intermediaries’ (2018) 36 Netherlands Quarterly of Human Rights 133 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0924051918772968>.

15 Paul Sturges and Almuth Gastinger, ‘Libraries, Donations and Freedom of Expression: The Case of Scientology’ (2012) 46 Journal of Librarianship and Information Science 32 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0961000612452031>.

16 Manju Vijayakumar and JK Vijayakumar, ‘Right to Information and Freedom of Expression’, Information, Communication, Library and Community Development (BR Publishing, 2004).

17 Kathleen de la Peña McCook and Katharine J Phenix, ‘Public Libraries and Human Rights’ (2007) 25 Public Library Quarterly 57 <https://doi.org/10.1300/J118v25n01_05>.

18 Joseph Huff-Hannon, ‘Librarians at the Gates’ (The Nation, 28 August 2006) <https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/librarians-gates/> accessed 2 October 2023.

19 Tracie D Hall, ‘Librarianship as Resistance’ (American Libraries Magazine, 1 September 2022) <https://americanlibrariesmagazine.org/2022/09/01/librarianship-as-resistance/> accessed 2 October 2023.

20 Martyn Wade, ‘IFLA FAIFE-Placing Freedom of Access to Information and Freedom of Expression at the Heart of Libraries’, BuB-Forum Bibliothek und Information (2018).

21 IFLA, ‘Resolution on Behalf of Librarians Who Are Victims of Violation of Human Rights’ (IFLA Council in Munich, 1983) <https://www.ifla.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/assets/faife/publications/policy-documents/munich.pdf> accessed 2 October 2023.

22 IFLA, ‘Libraries and Intellectual Freedom’ (2007) <https://www.ifla.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/assets/faife/presen.pdf> accessed 2 October 2023.

23 IFLA, ‘IFLA Code of Ethics for Librarians and Other Information Workers (Full Version)’ (IFLA websites, 2012) <https://www.ifla.org/publications/ifla-code-of-ethics-for-librarians-and-other-information-workers-full-version/> accessed 2 October 2023.

24 Emily JM Knox, ‘Supporting Intellectual Freedom: Symbolic Capital and Practical Philosophy in Librarianship’ (2014) 84 The Library Quarterly 8.

25 Pierre Bourdieu, ‘The Forms of Capital’ in Mark Granovetter (ed), The Sociology of Economic Life (Routledge 2018), 15.

26 ibid, 79.

27 Knox (n 24). And Pierre Bourdieu and Loïc Wacquant, ‘Symbolic Capital and Social Classes’ (2013) 13 Journal of Classical Sociology 292 <https://doi.org/10.1177/1468795X12468736>.

28 Bourdieu and Wacquant (n 27).

29 Knox (n 24).

30 Bourdieu and Wacquant (n 27).

31 Pierre Bourdieu, ‘The Social Space and the Genesis of Groups’ (1985) 14 Theory and Society 723, 724.

32 ibid, 731.

33 Anthony Giddens, Central Problems in Social Theory (Macmillan Education LTD 1990).

34 Anthony Giddens, The Constitution of Society: Outline of the Theory of Structuration (Univ of California Press 1984).

35 Bastian Lange and others, ‘Berlin’s Creative Industries: Governing Creativity?’ (2008) 15 Industry and Innovation 531, and Mark Banks and others, ‘Where the Art Is: Defining and Managing Creativity in New Media SMEs’ (2002) 11 Creativity and innovation management 255.

36 Angela McRobbie, Be Creative: Making a Living in the New Culture Industries (John Wiley & Sons 2018).

37 Florida (n 7).

38 McRobbie (n 36).

39 Giddens (n 33).

40 Florida (n 7).

41 Lea David, ‘Human Rights as an Ideology? Obstacles and Benefits’ (2018) 46 Critical Sociology 37 <https://doi.org/10.1177/0896920518798015>.

42 Keith Dowding, ‘Agency and Structure: Interpreting Power Relationships’ (2008) 1 Journal of Power 21 <https://doi.org/10.1080/17540290801943380>.

43 David L Imbroscio, ‘Structure, Agency, and Democratic Theory’ (1999) 32 Polity 45.

44 Dowding (n 42).

45 ibid.

46 Steve Mann, The Research Interview." Reflective Practice and Reflexivity in Research Processes (Palgrave Macmilan 2016); Alice Brown and Patrick A Danaher, ‘CHE Principles: Facilitating Authentic and Dialogical Semi-Structured Interviews in Educational Research’ (2019) 42 International Journal of Research & Method in Education 76; Rolf Sint and others, ‘Combining Unstructured, Fully Structured and Semi-Structured Information in Semantic Wikis’, CEUR Workshop Proceedings (2009).

47 K Collins, George Eliot: Interviews and Recollections (Springer 2010).

48 Martin N Marshall, ‘Sampling for Qualitative Research’ (1996) 13 Family Practice 522 <https://doi.org/10.1093/fampra/13.6.522>.

49 Glenn A Bowen, ‘Naturalistic Inquiry and the Saturation Concept: A Research Note’ (2008) 8 Qualitative Research 137 <https://doi.org/10.1177/1468794107085301>.

50 ICORN, ‘What Is ICORN?’ (2022) <https://www.icorn.org/what-icorn> accessed 28 November 2022.

51 Pen international, ‘Freedom of Expression’ (2022) <https://pen-international.org/defending-free-expression/the-issues/free-expression> accessed 28 November 2022.

52 Jaeger, Taylor and Gorham (n 11), and Gorham, Taylor and Jaeger (n 12).

53 Glušac (n 14).

54 Wade (n 20), IFLA, ‘Libraries and Intellectual Freedom’ (n 22), IFLA, ‘Resolution on Behalf of Librarians Who Are Victims of Violation of Human Rights’ (n 21), and IFLA, ‘IFLA Code of Ethics for Librarians and Other Information Workers (Full Version)’ (n 23).

55 Pierre Bourdieu, ‘The Social Space and the Genesis of Groups’ (1985) 14 Theory and Society 723; Bourdieu (n 26).

56 Fernand Vincent, ‘NGOs, Social Movements, External Funding and Dependency’ (2006) 49 Development 22 <https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.development.1100253>.

57 Thomas Parks, ‘The Rise and Fall of Donor Funding for Advocacy NGOs: Understanding the Impact’ (2008) 18 Development in Practice 213; Emma Kay and Howard Ramos, ‘Do Subnational Governments Fund Organizations in Neoliberal Times? The Role of Critical Events in Provincial Funding of Women’s Organizations’ (2017) 61 American Behavioral Scientist 1658.

58 Mohammed Almahfali and Helen Avery, ‘Human Rights from an Islamic Perspective: A Critical Review of Arabic Peer-Reviewed Articles’ (2023) 12 Social Sciences <https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12020106>.

59 Jack M Balkin, ‘Digital Speech and Democratic Culture: A Theory of Freedom of Expression for the Information Society’, Law and Society Approaches to Cyberspace (Routledge 2017); Elisabeth Rudowicz, ‘Creativity and Culture: A Two Way Interaction’ (2003) 47 Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 273; Laurence Cuny and others, Freedom & Creativity: Defending Art, Defending Diversity (UNESCO Publishing 2020).

60 John B Thompson, Books in the Digital Age: The Transformation of Academic and Higher Education Publishing in Britain and the United States (Polity 2005).

61 Brian Moeran, ‘The Book Fair as a Tournament of Values’ (2010) 16 Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 138.

62 Dawit Isaak Library, ‘Prohibited Literature’ (2022) <https://malmo.se/Uppleva-och-gora/Arkitektur-och-kulturarv/Malmo-stadsarkiv/Stadsarkivets-bibliotek/Dawit-Isaak-biblioteket/Forbjuden-litteratur.html> accessed 22 November 2022.

63 Kerstin Bree Carlson and Jacob Livingston Slosser, ‘When Religion Speaks: Denmark’s Face Covering Ban and European Human Rights Law’ (2021) 39 Nordic Journal of Human Rights 420 <https://doi.org/10.1080/18918131.2022.2026044>.