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ABSTRACT
The article addresses the influence of U.S. online campaign practices on West-European party organizations. The empirical case is the Norwegian Labor Party: To what extent did Labor adopt the online practices of the Obama campaign, and in what sense was the online strategy adapted to fit existing campaign and organizational structures? Based on the diffusion of technology and a hybridization perspective on campaign change, it is suggested that the literature on political parties and the network party model in particular is helpful to understand this process. The findings show that the Norwegian Labor Party was highly influenced by Obama's online campaign and U.S. online practices. However, the practices were adjusted to an existing campaign style and organizational structure. Moreover, an essential part of the online strategy was a thematic network structure that aimed to lower the threshold for participation and thereby engage and activate party members, as well as recruit new members. Hence, U.S. campaign practices diffuse to Norwegian electoral politics, and the adopted U.S. practices are implemented based on the ideals of the network party.
Acknowledgments
The author wishes to thank the JITP editors and anonymous reviewers for very helpful comments.
Notes
1. Campaign change and the influence of technology have most commonly been studied from a modernization perspective. New innovations in media technology enjoy a prominent position as a factor for change (e.g., CitationBlumler & Kavanagh, 1999; CitationFarrell & Webb, 2000; CitationNorris, 2000; see Schmitt-Beck, 2007, for an overview).
2. In general, the influence of new technology is constrained by countervailing forces that restrain and shape the effects (e.g., Heilbronner, 1967; CitationNeuman, 1991; CitationPool, 1983)
3. See CitationHallin and Mancini (2004) for a similar perspective on the globalization of political communication.
4. According to CitationNielsen (2009), the use of social networking sites in the primary campaign also encountered some severe problems.
5. See CitationKrouwel (2006) for an overview of party models.
6. The network party is based on CitationKoole's (1994) “modern cadre party” model.
7. See CitationHeidar and Saglie (2003, pp. 221–222) for the seven characteristics of the “network party.”
8. See CitationHeidar (2005) for an account of Norwegian Parties and the Norwegian Party system.
9. The Labor Party (Ap) has traditionally been the dominant party, and constitutes the left on the left–right axis with the Socialist Left Party (SV). The Progress Party and the Conservatives constitute the right. The Liberal Party (V), The Centre Party (the agrarian party) (Sp), and the Christian Democratic Party (KrF) are the three so-called center parties.
10. The 2005 interviews were carried out by the author; the 2001 interviews were carried out by Anne Krogstad, Hanne Marthe Narud, Henry Valen, and the author.
12. This information was provided by the informants, but was also available at the Labor Party Web site: http://arbeiderpartiet.no/Presse/Pressemeldinger/Bakgrunnsinformasjon-om-Arbeiderpartiets-kampanje/(language)/nor-NO
13. The Labor Party team was also approached by U.S. companies trying to sell their programs and applications for use on the Norwegian campaign, but were declined.
14. Although the Labor Party to some extent has traditionally utilized canvassing, it is not a traditional ideal of Norwegian political campaigning as it is in the U.S. Indeed, studies from the 1950s showed how Conservatives in the Stavanger area shunned this type of “Americanized campaigning” (CitationValen & Katz, 1964). However, other types of grassroots campaigning are ideals in Norway as well.
15. In the U.S., database technology and what it offers concerning voter targeting is a valued asset (CitationHoward, 2006). The use of individual-level data is prohibited in Norway, and database technology cannot be used for targeting purposes in the same manner (CitationKarlsen, 2011b).
16. The Labor candidates utilized Facebook and Twitter to a great extent (CitationKarlsen, 2011a), and the apparent success of this strategy emphasize the difference between a Norwegian party centered campaign and the U.S. candidate-centered campaign.
17. Quoted in Thomas (2009, p. 108).
18. Quoted in Thomas (2009, p. 108).