Crowdsourcing Accountability in a Nigerian Election

Abstract

We explore the capacity for new information and communication technologies (ICTs) to facilitate crowdsourced elections monitoring. In broad terms, we are interested in digitally enabled collective action initiatives by nonstate actors, especially in places where the state is incapable of meeting the expectations of democratic governance. In the case at hand, we test for effects of crowdsourcing elections monitoring in the form of citizen-generated reports of failures, abuses, and successes through the Ushahidi open-source geographical information systems (GIS) platform in regard to the 2011 Nigerian elections. Controlling for a number of factors, we find that the number and nature of crowdmap reports generated by citizens is significantly correlated with increased voter turnout in the 2011 Nigerian presidential election as a result of providing officials with improved information about the functionality of local polling stations.

KEYWORDS:

• Africa
• democracy
• democratization
• election-monitoring
• elections
• information and communication technology
• mobile phones
• monitorial citizenship
• political information

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank Ngozi Iwere and Chuks Ojidoh for providing access to the data and important information from the field. We would also like to thank research assistant Todd Kominiak for his help. Finally, we would like to thank the many colleagues who provided useful feedback at various stages of this process.

Notes

1. Most Africans use prepaid SIM cards. This creates some ambiguity as to what these numbers mean. For example, one can have a mobile phone subscription without having a mobile phone; or one can have multiple mobile phones and multiple subscriptions; or one can have a subscription without any minutes, and therefore effectively be without a phone.

2. One example of this is found in the use of mobile phones for agricultural extension services. See Grameen Foundation (2012).

3. A core assertion of the new collective action literature is that the threshold motivational level required for individual contributions to a collective action is, on the whole, minimal. In the case of crowdsourced information over mobile platforms, the necessary threshold is a willingness to send a text message.

4. Categories used to make the composite Ushahidi variables are as follows. Administrative Failures: Late arrival of INEC officials; Late arrival of Security Personnel; Late arrival of voting materials; Voters’ Names Missing; Candidates’ Names Missing on Ballot Paper; Wrong Names on Register; Absence of INEC Officials; Absence of Security Personnel; No Voting Materials; No Voting; No Party Logo on Ballot; Multiple Voting; Low Turnout; Not Following INEC Guidelines. Physical Intimidation: Intimidation; Harassment; Thugs; Disruption; Violence. Vote Manipulation: Bribery; Vote Buying; Misconduct by Security Personnel; Misconduct by INEC Officials; Irregularities; Snatching Ballot Boxes; Stuffing Ballot Boxes; Vote Rigging; Diversion of Election Materials; Disenfranchisement of Voters. Results Reports: Status Reports; Progress Reports; Results Reports. General Administrative Information: Naija Voices (this is a catch-all category assigned by ReclaimNaija personnel). What Went Well: What Went Well (this is a catch-all category assigned by ReclaimNaija personnel).

5. Email on December 3, 2011 between INEC and Reclaim Naija inspected by authors. Copy upon request and approval of correspondents.

6. Email on February 1, 2011 between INEC and Reclaim Naija inspected by authors. Copy upon request and approval of correspondents.

7. We calculated and tested each of these newspaper measures at both the article and paragraph level. The results of each set of measures are commensurate. However, for the purpose of brevity, we include only the paragraph-level measures (with a two-paragraph window), which provide more nuance.The types of occurrences reported in the newspapers that were used to build the composite newspaper measures are as follows: Vote Manipulation: Bribery, Fraud, Diversion, Irregularities, Snatch ballots, Stuff ballot boxes, Disenfranchise, Vote rigging, Buying Votes. Administrative Failures: Late Arrival INEC officials, Missing INEC officials, Machine Problems, Wrong Names, Missing Names, Missing Security Officials, Late Arrival of Security Officials, Missing Logos, Late Arrival Materials, Missing Materials, Not following INEC guidelines. Physical Intimidation: Violence, Attack, Abduct, Harassment, Intimidate, Kill, Thugs, Bomb.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Catie Snow Bailard

Catie Snow Bailard is an assistant professor in the School of Media and Public Affairs at The George Washington University. Her current research interests include comparative analyses of the political effects of information and communication technology in non-Western contexts.

Steven Livingston

Steven Livingston is a professor of Media and Public Affairs and International Affairs at The George Washington University. His current interests center on digitally enabled governance and collective action in areas of limited statehood.