Political Orders in the Making: Emerging Forms of Political Organization from Libya to Northern Mali

ABSTRACT

The current political developments in Libya and northern Mali represent nothing less than the renegotiation of the postcolonial political order. The toppling of Libya’s authoritarian regime and the country’s subsequent disintegration into post-revolutionary camps, plus the continuing Tuareg rebellion in northern Mali accompanied by the rise of transnational jihadist forces, have fostered the fragmentation of state structures, greater heterogeneity in politics, and gains by nonstate power groups on the complex political stage. To assess these processes the article proposes three theoretical concepts and fields of research: heterarchy (historical and present), connectivities in northwest Africa, and the importance of local actors/locality.

KEYWORDS:

• Africa
• connectivity
• heterarchy
• Imazighan
• Libya
• local actors
• locality
• northern Mali
• northwest
• order
• politics
• Tuareg
• transnational jihadists

Notes

1. See, for example, the reports and analyses by the International Crisis Group on Mali (http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/africa/west-africa/mali.aspx) and Libya (http://www.crisisgroup.org/en/regions/middle-east-north-africa/north-africa/libya.aspx); see also the following security and policy studies: Mustafa Barth, “Sand Castles in the Sahara: U.S. Military Basing in Algeria,” Review of African Political Economy 30, no. 98 (December 2003): 679–685; Tor A. Benjaminsen, “Does Supply-induced Scarcity Drive Violent Conflicts in the African Sahel? The Case of the Tuareg Rebellion in Northern Mali,” Journal of Peace Research 45, no. 6 (2008): 819–836; Morten Bøås and Liv E. Torheim, “The International Intervention in Mali: ‘Desert Blues’ or a New Beginning?” International Journal 68, no. 3 (2013): 417–423; Ray Bush and Jeremy Keenan, “North Africa: Power, Politics & Promise,” Review of African Political Economy 108 (2006): 175–184; Peter Cole, “Borderland Chaos? Stabilizing Libya’s Periphery” The Carnegie Papers Middle East, (Washington DC: Carnegie Endowment, 2012); Peter Cole and Wolfram Lacher, “Politics by Other Means: Conflicting Interests in Libya’s Security Sector,” Small Arms Survey, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies 20 (Geneva, Switzerland: Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, 2014); Wolfram Lacher, “Families, Tribes and Cities in the Libyan Revolution,” Middle East Policy 18, no. 4 (Winter 2011): 140–154; Wolfram Lacher, “Libyen: Wachstumsmarkt für Jihadisten,” in Jihadismus in Afrika Lokale Ursachen, regionale Ausbreitung, internationale Verbindungen, eds. Guido Steinberg and Annette Weber (Berlin, Germany: Stiftung Wissenschaft und Politik Deutsches Institut für Internationale Politik und Sicherheit, SWP, S7, 2015); Djallil Lounnas, “The Regional Fallouts of the French Intervention in Mali,” Mediterranean Politics 18, no. 2 (2013): 325–332; Roland Marchal, “Mali: Visions of War,” Stability: International Journal of Security & Development 2, no. 2 (2013): 1–8; Stephanie Pezard and Michael Shurkin, “Toward a Secure and Stable Northern Mali: Approaches to Engaging Local Actors,” RAND Corporation Research Report Series (Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation, 2013); Paul Pryce, “Misadventure or Mediation in Mali: The EU’s Potential Role,” Central European Journal of International and Security Studies 7, no. 2 (2013): 22–39; Dona Stewart, What is Next for Mali? The Roots of Conflict and Challenges to Security (Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College Strategic Studies Institute, 2013); Alex Thurston, “Mali: The Disintegration of a Model Democracy,” Stability 2, no. 1 (2013): 1–7. Isabelle Werenfels, “Qaddafis Libyen, endlos stabil und reformresistent?” Stiftung für Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP), Studie S 7 (2008): 5.

2. Ole Martin Gaasholt, “Northern Mali 2012: The Short-Lived Triumph of Irredentism,” Strategic Review for Southern Africa 35, no. 2 (2013): 68.

3. Christoph Züricher and Jan Koehler, “Institutions and Organizing Violence in Post-Socialist Societies,” Berliner Osteuropa Info 17 (2001): 48–52.

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10. Georg Klute, “African Political Actors in ‘Ungoverned Spaces’: Towards a Theory of Heterarchy,” in Actors in Contemporary African Politics, eds. Georg Klute and Peter Skalník (Berlin, Germany: LIT Verlag, 2013), 1–24.

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15. Von Trotha, “The Problem of Violence.”

16. Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan, “The Bureaucratic Mode of Governance and Practical Norms in West Africa and Beyond,” in Local Politics and Contemporary Transformations in the Arab World, eds. Malika Bouziane, Cilja Harders, and Anja Hoffmann (New York, NY: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2013), 43–64; Thomas Bierschenk and Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan, States at Work, Dynamics of African Bureaucracies (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2014).

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18. Von Trotha, “The ‘Andersen Principle.’” (Berlin, Germany: Berghof Research Center for Constructive Conflict Management, 2009).

19. Thomas Hüsken, “Tribes, Revolution, and Political Culture in the Cyrenaica Region of Libya,” in Local Politics and Contemporary Transformations in the Arab World, eds. Malika Bouziane, Cilja Harders, and Anja Hoffmann (New York, NY: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2013), 214–231; Georg Klute, “Post-Gaddafi Repercussions, Global Islam or Local Logics?” in Mali—Impressions of the Current Crisis Mali—impressions de la crise actuelle, eds. L. Koechlin and T. Förster (Basel, CH: Papers on Political Transformations, 2013), 7–13; Wolfram Lacher, Libyen: Wachstumsmarkt für Jihadisten; Baz Lecocq et al., “One Hippopotamus and Eight Blind Analysts: A Multivocal Analysis of the 2012 Political Crisis in the Divided Republic of Mali,” Review of African Political Economy 40, no. 137 (2013): 343–357.

20. See, for example, Peter Cole, Borderland Chaos?

21. Morten Bøås and Mats Utas, “Post-Gaddafi Repercussions in the Sahel and in West Africa,” Strategic Review for Southern Africa 35, no. 2 (2013), 3–15; Lounnas, “The Regional Fallouts of the French Intervention in Mali.”

22. See, for example, Dominique Casajus, “Sahara en mouvement,” L’Année du Maghreb 7 (2011): 5–23.

23. See Dida Badi, “Le rôle des communautés sahéliennes dans l’économie locale d’une ville saharienne: Tamanrasset (Sahara algérien),” in Les nouveaux urbains dans l’espace Sahara-Sahel: Un cosmopolitisme par le bas, eds. Elizabeth Boesen and Laurence Marfaing (Paris: Karthala, 2007), 259–277; Rachid Bellil and Dida Badi, “Les migrations actuelles des Touaregs du Mali vers le sud de l’Algérie (1963–1990),” Etudes et documents berbères 13 (1995): 79–98 ; Karine Bennafla, “La réactivation des échanges transsahariens: L’exemple tchado-libyen,” in Les relations transsahariens à l’époque contemporaine: Un espace en constante mutation, eds. Laurence Marfaing and Steffen Wippel (Paris, France: Karthala, 2004), 89–110; Julien Brachet, “Movement of People and Goods: Local Impacts and Dynamics of Migration to and Through the Central Sahara,” in Saharan Frontiers: Space and mobility in northwest Africa, eds. James MacDougall and Judith Scheele (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2012), 238–256; Emmanuel Grégoire, “Les migrations ouest-africaines en Libye,” in Les relations transsahariennes à l’époque contemporaine, eds. Laurence Marfaing and Steffen Wippel (Paris, France: Karthala, 2004), 173–191; Georg Klute, “L’islamisation du Sahara (re)mise en scène: Les idéologies légitimatrices dans la guerre fratricide des Touareg maliens,” in Les relations transsahariennes à l’époque contemporaine, eds. Laurence Marfaing and Steffen Wippel (Paris, France: Karthala, 2004), 361–378; Laurence Marfaing and Steffen Wippel, “Espace transsaharien: espace en mouvement: Quelques réflexions pour une approche conceptuelle—une introduction,” in Les relations transsahariennes à l’époque contemporaine, ed. Laurence Marfaing and Steffen Wippel (Paris, France: Karthala, 2004), 7–26; Jean-Louis Triaud, La légende noire de la Sanûsiyya: Une confrérie musulmane saharienne sous le regard français (1840–1930), vols. I and II (Paris, France: Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme, 1995).

24. Judith Scheele, “Saharan Connectivity in Al-Khalīl, Northern Mali,” in Saharan Frontiers, eds. James MacDougall and Judith Scheele (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2012), 222–237. MacDougall and Scheele (eds.), Saharan Frontiers.

25. Ulf Engel and Paul Nugent (eds.), Respacing Africa (Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010); Markus Hoehne and Dereje Feyissa (eds.), Borders and Borderlands as Resources in the Horn of Africa (Woodbridge, UK: James Currey, 2010); Benedikt Korf and Timothy Raeymaekers, “Introduction: Border, Frontier and the Geography of rule at the Margins of the State,” in Violence on the Margins: States, Conflict, and Borderlands, eds. Benedikt Korf and Timothy Raeymaekers (New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 3–28. See also Thomas Hüsken and Georg Klute, “Emerging Forms of Power in Two African Borderlands,” Journal of Borderlands Studies 25, no. 2, Special Issue: From Empiricism to Theory in African Border Studies (2010): 107–123; Judith Scheele, “Tribus, Etat et Fraude: La Région Frontalière Algéro-Malienne,” Études rurales 184 (2009): 79–93. For more references see the website of the African Borderlands Studies Network, www.aborne.org.

26. Yehudit Ronen, “Libya, the Tuareg and Mali on the Eve of the ‘Arab Spring’ and in its Aftermath: An Anatomy of Changed Relations,” Journal of North African Studies 18, no. 4 (2013): 544–559; Georg Klute, “Post-Gaddafi Repercussions, Global Islam or Local Logics?” in “Mali—Impressions of the current crisis Mali—impressions de la crise actuelle,” eds. Lucy Koechlin and Till Förster (Basel, Switzerland: Basel Papers on Political Transformations, 2013), 7–13.

27. Cilja Harders, “Bringing the Local Back,” in Local Politics and Contemporary Transformations in The Arab World, eds. Malika Bouziane, Cilja Harders, and Anja Hoffmann (New York, NY: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2013),113–136.

28. Veena Das and Deborah Poole (eds.), Anthropology in the Margins of the State (New York, NY: School of American Research Press, 2004); Finn Stepputat, “Contemporary Governscapes: Sovereign Practice and Hybrid Orders Beyond the Center,” in Local Politics and Contemporary Transformations in The Arab World, eds. Malika Bouziane, Cilja Harders, and Anja Hoffmann (New York, NY: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2013), 25–42.

29. Thomas Bierschenk, “Herrschaft, Verhandlung und Gewalt in einer afrikanischen Mittelstadt (Parakou, Benin),” Africa Spectrum 34, no. 3 (1999): 321–348.

30. Georg Klute, “De la chefferie administrative à la parasouveraineté régionale,” in Horizons nomades en Afrique Sahélienne: Sociétés, développement et démocratie, ed. André Bourgeot (Paris, France: Karthala, 1999), 167–181.

31. Joshua Forest, Lineages of State Fragility. Rural Civil Society in Guinea-Bissau (Oxford, UK: James Currey & Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2003). Thomas T. Spear, “Neo-Traditionalism and the Limits of Invention in British Colonial Africa,” Journal of African History 44 (2003): 3–27. Peter Skalník, “Chiefdom: A Universal Political Formation?” Focaal—European Journal of Anthropology 43 (2004): 76–98. Peter Skalník, “Rethinking Chiefdoms,” in Beside the State. Emergent Powers in Contemporary Africa, edited by Alice Bellagamba and Georg Klute (Cologne, Germany: Koeppe, 2008), 183–195.

32. Lucy Koechlin and Till Förster (eds.), The Politics of Governance: Actors and Articulations in Africa and Beyond (New York, NY: Routledge, 2014); Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan, “The Bureaucratic Mode of Governance and Practical Norms in West Africa and Beyond,” in Local Politics and Contemporary Transformations in The Arab World, Malika Bouziane, Cilja Harders, and Anja Hoffmann (New York, NY: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2013), 43–64; Thomas Bierschenk and Jean-Pierre Olivier de Sardan (eds.), States at Work: Dynamics of African Bureaucracies (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2014).

33. Georg Klute and Trutz von Trotha, “Roads to Peace. From Small War to Parastatal Peace in the North of Mali,” in Healing the Wounds. Essays on the Reconstruction of Societies after War, ed. Marie-Claire Foblets and Trutz von Trotha (Oxford, UK: Oñati International Series in Law and Society, 2004), 109–143; Alice Bellagamba and Georg Klute, “Tracing Emergent Powers in Contemporary Africa—Introduction,” in Beside the State, eds. Alice Bellagamba and Georg Klute (Cologne, Germany: Rüdiger Köppe, 2008), 7–21. Yann Lebeau, Boubacar Niane, Anne Piriou, and Monique de Saint Martin (eds.), Etat et acteurs émergents en Afrique: Démocratie, indocilité et transnationalisation (Paris, France: Karthala, 2003).

34. Luca Jourdan, “New Forms of Political Order in North Kivu (DRC)—The Case of the Governor Eugene Serufuli”, in Beside the State, eds. Alice Bellagamba and Georg Klute (Cologne, Germany: Rüdiger Köppe, 2008), 75–87.

35. Pierre Boilley,“Géopolitique africaine et rébellions touarègues. Approches locales, approches globales (1960–2011),” L’Année du Maghreb VII (2011): 151–162; Trutz von Trotha, “The Problem of Violence: Some Theoretical Remarks about ‘Regulative Orders of Violence,’ Political Heterarchy, and Dispute Regulation beyond the State,” in The Problem of Violence, eds. Georg Klute and Birgit Embaló (Cologne, Germany: Rüdiger Köppe, 2011), 31–48.

36. Kurt Beck, “Stämme im Schatten des Staats: Zur Entstehung administrativer Häuptlingstümer im nördlichen Sudan,” Sociologus 39, no. 1 (1989): 19–35; Trutz von Trotha, Koloniale Herrschaft. Zur soziologischen Theorie der Staatsentstehung am Beispiel des “Schutzgebietes Togo” (Tübingen, Germany: Mohr, 1994).

37. Hüsken, “Tribes, Revolution, and Political Culture in the Cyrenaica Region of Libya.”

38. Dirk Vandewalle, A History of Modern Libya (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2006); Dirk Vandewalle (ed.), Libya Since 1969: Qadhafi’s Revolution Revisited (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008).

39. John Davis, Libyan Politics: Tribe and Revolution (London, UK: Tauris, 1987); Lisa Anderson, “Tribe and State: Libyan Anomalies,” in Tribes and State Formation in the Middle East, eds. Philip S. Khoury and Joseph Kostiner (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990), 288–302; Hans Peter Mattes, “Formal and Informal Authority in Libya Since 1969,” in Libya Since 1969, ed. Dirk Vandewalle (Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008). 55–81.

40. Amal Obeidi, Political Culture in Libya (Richmond, UK: Routledge Curzon, 2001), 108.

41. Isabelle Werenfels, “Qaddafis Libyen, endlos stabil und reformresistent ?” (Berlin, Germany: Stiftung für Wissenschaft und Politik (SWP), 2008); Fritz Edlinger, Libyen: Hintergründe, Analysen, Berichte (Wien, Austria: Promedia, 2011); Thomas Hüsken, “Politische Kultur und die Revolution in der Cyrenaika,” in Libyen: Analysen, Berichte, ed. Fritz Edlinger (Wien, Austria: Promedia, 2011), 47–71; Lacher, “Families, tribes and cities in the Libyan Revolution.”

42. Peter Cole and Brian McQuinn (eds.), The Libyan Revolution and its Aftermath (London, UK: Hurst, 2015).

43. Hüsken, “Tribes, Revolution, and Political Culture in the Cyrenaica Region of Libya.”

44. Wolfram Lacher, “Fault Lines of the Revolution: Political Actors, Camps and Conflicts in the New Libya,” SWP Research Paper, (Berlin, Germany: German Institute for International and Security Affairs, 2013).

45. Mary Fitzgerald, “Finding Their Place: Libya’s Islamists During and After the Revolution,” in The Libyan Revolution and its Aftermath, eds. Peter Cole and Brian McQuinn (London, UK: Hurst, 2015), 177–204; Cole, “Borderland Chaos?”

46. Dirk Vandewalle, “Libya’s Uncertain Revolution,” in The Libyan Revolution and its Aftermath, eds. Peter Cole and Brian McQuinn (London, UK: Hurst, 2015), 17–30.

47. Cole and McQuinn (eds.), The Libyan Revolution and its Aftermath; Hüsken, “Tribes, Revolution, and Political Culture in the Cyrenaica Region of Libya”; Lacher, “Fault Lines of the Revolution.”

48. For an overview over the literature on the political field until the new millennium, see the monographs by Pierre Boilley, Les Touaregs Kel Adagh dépendances et révoltes: du Soudan français au Mali contemporain (Paris, France: Karthala, 1999); Georg Klute, Tuareg-Aufstand in der Wüste. Ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der Gewalt und des Krieges (Cologne, Germany: Köppe, 2013); Baz Lecocq, Disputed Desert: Decolonisation, Competing Nationalisms and Tuareg Rebellions in Northern Mali (Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill, 2010).

49. Bøås and Utas, “Post-Gaddafi Repercussions in the Sahel and in West Africa”; Gaasholt, “Northern Mali 2012”; Ronen, “Libya, the Tuareg and Mali on the Eve of the ‘Arab Spring’ and in its Aftermath”; Stewart, “What is Next for Mali?”; Pierre Boilley, “Géopolitique africaine et rébellions touarègues: Approches locales, approches globales (1960–2011),” L’Année du Maghreb VII (2011): 151–162.

50. Dowd and Raleigh, “The Myth of Global Islamic Terrorism and Local Conflict in Mali and the Sahel”; Lecocq et al., “One Hippopotamus and Eight Blind Analysts.”

51. MacDougall and Scheele (eds.), Saharan Frontiers; Judith Scheele, “Saharan Connectivity in Al-Khalīl, Northern Mali,” in Saharan Frontiers, eds. James MacDougall and Judith Scheele (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2012), 222–237.

52. Dida Badi, “Cultural Interaction and the Artisanal Economy in Tamanrasset,” in Saharan Frontiers, eds. James MacDougall and Judith Scheele (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2012), 200–211; Julien Brachet, “Movements of People and Goods: Local Impacts and Dynamics of Migration to and through the Central Sahara,” in Saharan Frontiers, eds. James MacDougall and Judith Scheele (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 2012), 238–256.

53. Baz Lecocq et al., “One Hippopotamus and Eight Blind analysts.”

54. Beck, “Stämme im Schatten des Staats”; von Trotha, Koloniale Herrschaft; Georg Klute, Tuareg-Aufstand in der Wüste. Ein Beitrag zur Anthropologie der Gewalt und des Krieges (Cologne, Germany: Köppe, 2013).

55. Bøås and Torheim, “The International Intervention in Mali.”

56. Trutz von Trotha, “Die Zukunft liegt in Afrika. Vom Zerfall des Staates, von der Vorherrschaft der konzentrischen Ordnung und vom Aufstieg der Parastaatlichkeit,” Leviathan 28, no. 2 (2000): 253–279.