Historical Overview of Development’s Impact on Rural and Urban Governance in Iran

Abstract:

The constitutional revolution in 1906 was the beginning of a new era for Iran. A national parliament was established for making laws that established modern institutions such as city and village councils and mayors over the decades. Urban governance was renewed and the land reforms in the 1960s transformed rural governance, changed landlord– peasant relations and reduced the traditional authority of village headman (kadkhodas) in village administration. The 1979 revolution introduced a new kind of local governance, Islamic councils for governing cities and villages. This article discusses the main changes and challenges of local governance in Iran by using theoretical concepts of dependent development. The changing pattern of authority and penetration of state bureaucracy through the creation of several rural and urban organizations before and after the Revolution of 1979 is discussed. The article also explains how the establishments of these rural and urban institutions have helped to increase the domination of the state officials within both cities and villages.

Key Words:

• Bureaucracy
• centralism
• development
• governance
• Iran

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Fernando Henrique Cardoso & Enzo Faletto (1979) Dependency and Development in Latin America (Berkeley: University of California Press).

2 John Foran (1999) Fragile Resistance: A History of Social Transformations in Iran, From the Safavid Era to the Years Following the Islamic Revolution [Persian translation by A. Tadayon] (Tehran: RASA Institute for Cultural Services), p. 288.

3 Hossein Mahdavi (1970) The Pattern and Problems of Economic Development in Rentier States: The Case of Iran, in: M.A. Cook (ed.), Studies in Economic History of the Middle East from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day, p. 258 (Oxford: Oxford University Press).

4 Mohsen Modir Shanehchi (2000) Centralism and Underdevelopment in Contemporary Iran, p. 361 (Tehran : RASA Institute for Cultural Services).

5 Ibid, p. 31.

6 Homa Katouzian (1993 (Political Economy of Iran, vol. 2. [Persian translation by M. R. Nafisi and K. Azizi], pp. 4–53 (Tehran: Papirus Publications).

7 Ali Asghar Shamim (1992) Iran in Ghajarid Era: 13th Century to the First Half of the 14th Lunar Century, p. 223 (Tehran: Elmi Publications).

8 A. S. Malikof (1979) The Establishment of Reza Khan Dictatorship in Iran [Persian translation by S. Irani], p. 66 (Tehran: the Pocket books Company).

9 Fred Halliday (1979) Iran, Dictatorship and Development [Persian translation by M. Yalghani and A. Tolou], p. 24 (Tehran: Elm Publications).

10 Foran, op. cit., p. 339.

11 Ervand Abrahamian (1998) Iran Between Two Revolutions [Persian translation by A. Golmohammadi and M. A. Fatahi], p. 541 (Tehran: Nashr-e Ney Publications).

12 Katouzian, “Political Economy,” p. 225.

13 Jahangir Amouzgar (1996) The Rise and Fall of Pahlavi Dynasty [Persian translation by A. Lotfian], p. 321 (Tehran: The Center of Book Translation and Publications).

14 Fereydoun Kamran (1995) Rural Development and Planning, p. 20 (Tehran: Avay-e Nour Publications).

15 Abdol Ali Lahsaeizadeh (1998) Sociological Study of Rural Management in Iran, in: Papers’ Collection for the First Conference on Sociology and Management, p. 403 (Tehran: Industrial Management Organization).

16 Foran, ibid, p. 339.

17 Ibid, p. 193.

18 Fatemeh E. Moghadam (1996) From Land Reform to Revolution, the Politics of Agricultural Development in Iran, 1962–1979, p. 193 (London: Tanris).

19 Preamble of the Constitution: The Constitution guarantees the negation of any form of intellectual and social oppression and economic monopoly and tries to break away from the dictatorial system so as to place the destiny of people in their own hands.

- Article 44 divides the economy into three sections of government, cooperatives, and the private sector:

-Article 7 related with the councils.

-Article 100: With a view to expending the speedy implementation of social, economic, development, health, cultural and educational plans and other welfare affairs, the management of the affairs of each village, district, city, town or province shall be carried out with the cooperation of the people, and with due consideration to the local needs, under the supervision of a Council known as Village, District, City, Town or Provincial Council whose members shall be elected by the people of the same locality.

-Article 102: The High Council of the Provinces shall be allowed, within the scope of its functions, to draw up bills and propose them to the National Parliament (5) either directly or through the Government.

20 Institute for Social Studies and Research of University of Tehran (1974) Socio- Economic Studies of Farm Corporation in Six Regions of Iran (Tehran: Institute for Social Studies and Research Publications).

21 Mostafa Azkia (2016) Sociology of Development and Under Development of Rural Iran, p. 435 (Tehran: Etla′at Publications).

22 Ali Shakoori (2019) Rural Development in Iran: A Survey of Policies and Outcomes, Journal of Developing Societies, 35 (3), p. 347.

23 Abrahamian, “Iran Between Two Revolutions,” p. 29.

24 Hesbat has a historical past and was an important institution for daily life order in Islamic cities. A text from the thirteenth century, Ayeen-i Hesbat [Municipal Regulations] lists the Mohtaseb’s duties: Responsibility for urban businesses supervision and inspection. He must prevent cheating and fraud in business and guide merchants to act according to Islamic orders (for more information see Ibn-e- Ekhvah (1988) Municipal Regulations in the 7^th Century (Tehran: Elmi va Farhangi Publications).

25 Saadodin Rooshdiye (1964) Urban Development and Urban Planning in Iran (Tehran: Iran Municipalities Association Press).

26 Seyed Mohsen Habibi (1997) From Old City to City: A Historical Analysis of the Concept of City (Tehran: University of Tehran Press).

27 Mosstafa Keeyani (2007) The First Pahlavi’s Architecture (Tehran: Institute for Contemporary Historical Studies).

28 Bernard Hourcade (2009) Tehran of Alborz [Persian translation by S. Sahami] (Mashhad: Mohaghegh and Tarane Publications).

29 Institute for Social Studies and Research of University of Tehran (1964) Lectures and Reports from the First Seminar on Tehran’ Social Problems (Tehran: Institute for Social Studies and Research Publications).

30 Ahmad Ashraf & Ali Banuazizi (2008) Social Classes, State and Revolution in Iran [Persian translation by S. Torabi Farsani] (Tehran: Niloofar Publications).

31 Seyed Mohammad Hossein Mirabolghasemi (2003) Taleghani, A Roar in Silence: A Short Research in Life and Thoughts of Ayatollah Taleghani (Tehran: Enteshar Publications).

32 Hossein Imani Jajarmi & Mostafa Azkia (2009) Challenges for Local Democracy in Iran: A Study of Islamic City Councils, Middle East Critique, 18(2), pp. 145–159.

33 Azkia, “Sociology of Development,” p. 426.

34 Ali Shakoori (2006) People’s Participation in Post-revolution Rural Reforms in Iran, Journal of Rural Development, 25 (3), pp. 420–421.

35 Shakoori, “People Participation,” p. 420.

36 Simin Fadaeei (2018) The Long Twentieth Century in Iran: Dynamics of Change, Continuity and Mobilizing Master Frames, Journal of Developing Societies, 34(2), pp. 1–21.

37 Kaveh Ehsani (2006) Rural Society and Agricultural Development in Post-Revolution Iran: The First Two Decades, Critique: Critical Middle Eastern Studies 15(1), p. 78.

38 For more detail, see Ahamd Ashraf (1985) The State, Classes and Mode of Mobilization in the Iranian Revolution, State, Culture, and Society,1(3), pp. 277–311; Ehsani, “Rural Society,” pp. 79–96; Ali Asghar Saeidi (2004) The Accountability of Para-Governmental Organization (Bonyads): The Case of Iranian Foundations, Iranian Studies,37(3), pp. 479–498; and Ali Farazmand (1989) The State, Bureaucracy and Revolution in Modern Iran: Agrarian Reform and Regime Politics (New York: Praeger).