Transfer of nitroimidazoles from contaminated beeswax to honey

ABSTRACT

Nitroimidazoles are not authorised for the treatment of honey bees in the European Union. However, they can be found in honey largely because they are illegally used in apiculture for the treatment of Nosema. The aim of the study was to examine the possible transfer of nitroimidazoles (metronidazole, ronidazole, dimetridazole and ipronidazole) from contaminated beeswax to honey. The wax foundations fortified with a mixture of four nitroimidazoles at three concentration levels (1000, 10,000 and 100,000 μg kg^–1) were placed in beehives to let the honeybees (Apis mellifera L.) draw out the contaminated wax foundations to honeycombs. At 1 month from the start, the frames filled with capped honey were removed from the hives for a first sampling of honey. Next, the honeycombs were further incubated for 5 months in the laboratory at 35°C and sampled monthly. In the sampled honey, the concentrations of nitroimidazoles and their main metabolites (hydroxymetronidazole, 2-hydroxymethyl-1-methyl-5-nitroimidazole, hydroxyipronidazole) were determined by LC-MS/MS and compared with those determined in the nitroimidazole-containing wax foundations. Each of the tested nitroimidazoles could migrate from beeswax to honey kept in the contaminated combs at each tested concentration level. Higher maximum concentrations of residues in honey sampled from contaminated combs at 1000, 10,000 and 100,000 μg kg^–1 were observed for metronidazole (28.9, 368.5 and 2589.4 μg kg^–1 respectively) and ronidazole (27.4, 232.9 and 2351.2 μg kg^–1 respectively), while lower maximum concentrations were measured for dimetridazole (0.98, 8.4 and 67.7 μg kg^–1) and ipronidazole (0.9, 7.9 and 35.7 μg kg^–1 respectively). When we took into account that a frame completely filled with honey on both sides of the comb contained 110 g of beeswax and 2488 g of honey, and that this ratio was constant, then maximum amounts of initial metronidazole, ronidazole, dimetridazole and ipronidazole that migrated from contaminated wax foundations to honey could be calculated: 65–89%, 55–63%, 1.7–2.7% and 1.4–2.3%, respectively.

Graphical Abstract

KEYWORDS:

• Nitroimidazoles
• beeswax
• honey
• transfer
• LC-MS/MS

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

The project was funded by the National Science Centre allocated on the basis of decision number DEC 2011/03/D/NZ7/03767.