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Abstract
The transition from war to peace is fraught with tension and the risk of a return to bloodshed. With so much at stake, it is crucial that the international community and local stakeholders make sense of the complex mosaic of challenges, to support a lasting, inclusive and prosperous peace. Recent missions, such as in Afghanistan, Somalia or Sudan, have highlighted the fact that there can be no one-size-fits-all approach to steering countries away from violence and towards stability.
This Adelphi offers a series of economic perspectives on conflict resolution, showing how the challenges of peacebuilding can be more effectively tackled. From the need to marry diplomatic peacemaking with development efforts, and activate the private sector in the service of peacebuilding aims, to the use of taxes and natural-resource revenues as a financial base for sustainable peace, this issue considers how economic factors can positively shape and drive peace processes. It examines the complex ways in which power and order may be manifested in conflict zones, where unpalatable compromises with local warlords can often be the first step towards a more lasting settlement. In distilling expertise from a range of disciplines, this Adelphi seeks to inform a more economically integrated and responsive approach to helping countries leave behind their troubled pasts and take a fuller role in constructing their futures.
Notes
See, for example, Vadim Volkov, Violent entrepreneurs: The use of force in the making of Russian capitalism (Cornell, NY: Cornell University Press, 2002).
Roy Godson, Menace to society: political-criminal collaboration around the world (Washington DC: National Strategy Information Center, 2003).
R. T. Naylor, ‘The Insurgent Economy: Black Market Operations of Guerrilla Organizations', Crime, Law and Social Change, vol. 20, no. 1, 1993, pp. 13–51. See also A. Wennmann, The Political Economy of Peacemaking (London: Routledge, forthcoming 2011), especially chapter six.
Naylor, ‘The Insurgent Economy’.
Alfredo Rangel Suárez, ‘Parasites and predators: guerrillas and the insurrection economy of Colombia’, Journal of International Affairs, vol. 53, no. 2, Spring 2000, pp. 577–601.
See Richard Snyder, ‘Does Lootable Wealth Breed Disorder? A Political Economy of Extraction Framework’, in Comparative Political Studies, vol. 39, no. 8, October 2006, pp. 943–68.
See John Rollins, Liana Sun Wyler and Seth Rosen, ‘International Terrorism and Transnational Crime: Security Threats, U.S. Policy, and Considerations for Congress', Congressional Research Service Report R41004, Washington DC, 5 January 2010.
Matthew Levitt and Michael Jacobson, The Money Trail: Finding, Following, and Freezing Terrorist Finances, Policy Focus no. 89 (Washington DC: The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, November 2008), p. 9.
Financial Action Task Force, Terrorist Financing (Paris, France: FATF Secretariat, OECD, 2008), pp. 9, 18.
Rangel Suárez, ‘Parasites and Predators’.
Naylor, ‘The Insurgent Economy’, pp. 24–25
William Billingslea, ‘Illicit Cigarette Trafficking and the Funding of Terrorism’, The Police Chief, vol. 71, no. 2, February 2004.
Aamir Latif and Kate Wilson, The Taliban and Tobacco: Smuggled Cigarettes Give Boost To Pakistani Militants (Washington DC: Center for Public Integrity, 28 June 2009).
Kate Wilson, Terrorism and Tobacco: Extremists, Insurgents Turn to Cigarette Smuggling (Washington DC: Center for Public Integrity, 2009).
See Peter Andreas, Blue Helmets and Black Markets: The Business of Survival in the Siege of Sarajevo (Cornell, NY: Cornell University Press, 2008).
Ibid.
Ibid., p. 25.
Naylor, ‘The Insurgent Economy’, p. 42.
Achim Wennmann, ‘Grasping the Financing and Mobilization Cost of Armed Groups: A New Perspective on Conflict Dynamics', in Contemporary Security Policy, vol. 30, no. 2, August 2009, pp. 265–280.
Vanda Felbab-Brown, Shooting Up: Counterinsurgency and the War on Drugs (Washington DC: The Brookings Institution, 2010).
See Svante Cornell, ‘Narcotics and Armed Conflict: Interaction and Implications', in Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, vol. 30, 2007, pp. 207–227.
Florian P. Kühn, ‘Aid, Opium, and the State of Rents in Afghanistan: Competition, Cooperation or Cohabitation?’, Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, vol. 2 no. 3, 2008, pp. 309–327.
James Cockayne and Phil Williams, The Invisible Tide: Towards an International Strategy to Deal with Drug Trafficking Through West Africa, policy paper (New York: International Peace Institute, 2009).
Peter Leonard, ‘Heroin Trade a Backdrop to Kyrgyz Violence’, Associated Press, 24 June 2010.
James Cockayne and Adam Lupel, ‘Introduction: Rethinking the Relationship between Peace Operations and Organized Crime’, International Peacekeeping, vol. 16, no. 1, 2009, pp. 4–19.
Peter Andreas, ‘Symbiosis Between Peace Operations and Illicit Business in Bosnia’, in International Peacekeeping, vol. 16, no. 1, February 2009, pp. 33–46.
See Mike Pugh, ‘The Political Economy of Peacebuilding: A Critical Theory Perspective’, International Journal of Peace Studies, vol. 10, no. 2, 2005, pp. 23–42.
Mike Pugh, ‘Postwar Political Economy in Bosnia and Herzegovina: the Spoils of Peace’, Global Governance, vol. 8, no. 4, 2002, pp. 467–82.
See Ken Menkhaus, ‘The rise of a mediated state in northern Kenya: the Wajir story and its implications for state-building’, Afrika focus, vol. 21, no. 2, 2008, pp. 23–38.
William Reno, ‘Understanding Criminality in West African Contexts', International Peacekeeping, vol. 16, no. 1 February 2009 , pp. 47–61.
See for example Sarah E. Mendelson, Barracks and Brothels: Peacekeepers and Human Trafficking in the Balkans (Washington DC, Center for Strategic and International Studies Press, 2005).
James Cockayne and Adam Lupel, ‘Conclusion: From Iron Fist to Invisible Hand – Peace Operations, Organized Crime and Intelligent International Law Enforcement’, International Peacekeeping, vol. 16, no. 1, February 2009, pp. 154–55.
William Reno, ‘Protectors and Predators: Why Is There a Difference Among West African Militias?’, in Louise Andersen, Bjørn Moller and Finn Stepputat (eds), Fragile States and Insecure People? Violence, Security, and Statehood in the Twenty-First Century (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), pp. 99–122.
Thom Shanker and Eric Schmitt, ‘U.S. Intelligence Puts New Focus on Afghan Graft’, New York Times, 12 June 2010.
UN docs, S/PRST/2009/32, 8 December 2009, available at http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unsc_pres_statements09.htm and S/PRST/2010/4, 24 February 2010, at http://www.un.org/Docs/sc/unsc_pres_statements10.htm.
Victoria K. Holt and Alix J. Boucher, ‘Framing the Issue: UN Responses to Corruption and Criminal Networks in Post-Conflict Settings', in International Peacekeeping, vol. 16, no. 1, February 2009, pp. 20–32.
See further Cockayne and Lupel, ‘Conclusion: From Iron Fist’, pp. 164–65.
Andrew Hudson and Alexandra W. Taylor, ‘The International Commission against Impunity in Guatemala: A New Model for International Criminal Justice Mechanisms', Journal of International Criminal Justice, vol. 8, no. 1, 2010, pp. 53–74.
On the Liberian example see James Cockayne, ‘Wrestling with Shadows: Principled Engagement with Violent Economies and the Repressive Regimes that Rule Them’ forthcoming in Morten Pedersen and David Kinley, eds, Principled Engagement (United Nations University Press, forthcoming 2010).
Cockayne and Lupel, ‘Conclusion: From Iron Fist’.
Global Witness report, Lessons UNlearned, 2010 (available at http://www.globalwitness.org).
United Nations, Final report of the Group of Experts on the DRC submitted in accordance with paragraph 8 of Security Council resolution 1857 (2008). UN Doc. S/2009/603, 23 November 2009, available at http://www.un.org/sc/committees/1533/egroup.shtml.
Bruce Broomhall, Illicit Conflict Economies: Enhancing the Role of Law Enforcement and Financial Machinery, (Montreal: University of Quebec, 2010).
Jonathan Winer, ‘Tracking Conflict Commodities and Financing’, in Karen Ballentine and Heiko Nitzschke, eds, Profiting from Peace: Managing the Resource Dimensions of Civil War, (Boulder, CO: International Peace Academy and Lynne Rienner publishers, 2005), pp. 69–93.
See generally John Ruggie, Protect, Respect and Remedy: A Framework for Business and Human Rights. Report of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on the Issue of Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and other Business Enterprises. UN Doc. A/HRC/85, 7 April 2008, available at http://www.unglobalcompact.org/docs/issues_doc/human_rights/Human_Rights_Working_Group/29Apr08_7_Report_of_SRSG_to_HRC.pdf.
See Cockayne, ‘Wrestling with Shadows', forthcoming.
Cockayne and Lupel, ‘Introduction’, p. 7.
US Supreme Court, Holder, Attorney General, et al. v. Humanitarian Law Project et al., No. 08-1498, Judgment of 21 June 2010.
See Felbab-Brown, Shooting Up.