Eurasian geopolitics and financial crisis: transforming Russian–Turkish relations from geopolitical rivalry to strategic cooperation

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Notes

¹ Michael Hudson, ‘De-dollarization: dismantling America's financial–military empire. The Yekaterinburg turning point’, 13 June 2009, available at < http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context = va&aid = 13969> (accessed 2 July 2009).

² The USA has played a dual role in international economic relations over the course of the past 60 years: system maker of a liberalizing world economy and privilege taker within that international order to serve its own particular interests. For instance, the US-dominated economic adjustment struggles to design both the Bretton Woods and the post-Bretton Woods monetary order. Moreover, the USA played the determining role at the outcome of the 1985 Plaza Accords and the 1987 Louvre Accords to adjust exchange rates in favour of the USA. M. Mastanduno, ‘System maker and privileged taker: US power and the international political economy’, World Politics, 60(1), 2009, pp. 121–154.

³ Fareed Zakaria, The Post-American World, Allen Lane, London, 2008.

⁴ Fareed Zakaria, The Post-American World, Allen Lane, London, 2008

⁵ Global Trends 2025: A Transformed World, The National Intelligence Council, pp. 35–29, available at < http://www.dni.gov/nic/PDF_2025/2025_Global_Trends_Final_Report.pdf> (accessed 11 October 2008).

⁶ Chalmers Johnson, Blowback: The Costs and Consequences of American Empire, Henry Holt, New York, 2000, pp. 221–229; J. Stiglitz, Globalization and Its Discontents, Norton, New York, 1998, pp. 89–132.

⁷ Robert Cox, ‘Beyond empire and terror: critical reflections on the political economy of order’, New Political Economy, 9(3), 2004, pp. 313–314.

⁸ IMF says US crisis is ‘largest financial shock since Great Depression’ (2008), available at < http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2008/apr/09/useconomy.subprimecrisis> (accessed 8 May 2009).

⁹ Peter Gowan, ‘US hegemony today’, in J. B. Foster and R. W. McChesney (eds), Pox American, Pluto Press, London, 2004, p. 67.

¹⁰ Bülent Gökay and David Whitman, ‘Ghost dance: the U.S. and illusions of power in the 21st century’, Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations, 3(4), 2004, p. 65.

¹¹ Peter Gowan, The Global Gamble: Washington's Faustian Bid for World Dominance, Verso, London, 1999, p. 19.

¹² The term ‘the recycling the petrodollars’ was coined by US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger to manage the about-to-be-created flood of oil dollars in the 1973 Middle East oil crisis. For an argument that addresses the detrimental role of petrodollar recycling for American hegemony, see D. E. Spiro, The Hidden Hand of American Hegemony: Petrodollar Recycling and International Markets, Cornell University Press, New York, 1999.

¹³ Bülent Gökay, ‘Tectonic shifts and systemic faultlines: a global perspective to understand the 2008–2009 world economic crisis’, Alternatives: Turkish Journal of International Relations, 8(1), 2009, p. 32.

¹⁵ H. C. K. Liu, ‘Breaking free from dollar hegemony’, Asia Times, 3 July 2008, available at < http://www.atimes.com/atimes/China_Business/JG30Cb01.html> (accessed 5 August 2009).

¹⁴ H. C. K. Liu, ‘Dollar hegemony has to go’, Asia Times, 11 May 2002, available at < http://www.atimes.com/global-econ/DD11Dj01.html> (accessed 5 August 2009).

¹⁶ Financial Report of the United States (2008). Available from < www.gao.gov/financial/fy2008financialreport.html> (accessed 2 July 2009).

¹⁷ M. Mastunduno, ‘System maker and priviledged taker: US power and international political economy’, World Politics, 60(1), p. 146.

¹⁸ M. Mastunduno, op. cit., p. 152.

¹⁹ ‘Gorbachev: US could start a new cold war’, Telegraph, 6 May 2008, available at < http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/1933223/Gorbachev-US-could-start-new-Cold-War.html> (accessed 30 March 2009).

²⁰ Aleksandr Dugin, ‘Pax Russica: for a Eurasian alliance against America’, New Perspectives Quarterly, 25(4), Fall 2008, pp. 56–60.

²¹ Marcel de Hass, ‘Russia's upcoming revised military doctrine’, Power and Interest News Report, available at < http://www.pinr.com/report.php?ac = view_report&report_id = 622> (accessed 11 April 2009).

²² Javier Morales, Russia's New National Security Strategy: Towards a ‘Medvedev Doctrine’?, 25 September 2009, available at < http://www.realinstitutoelcano.org/wps/portal/rielcano_eng/Content?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT = /elcano/elcano_in/zonas_in/ari135-2009> (accessed 2 November 2009).

²³ J. Johnson, ‘Forbidden fruit: Russia's uneasy relationship with the US dollar’, Review of International Political Economy, 15(3), 2008, pp. 380–381.

²⁴ Cited in Povilas Žielys, ‘The role of ruble in Russian geopolitical visions’, 3 September 2009, available at < http://www.geopolitika.lt/?artc = 3202> (accessed 18 September 2009).

²⁵ Putin's prepared remarks at 43rd Munich Conference on Security Policy, available at < http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/02/12/AR2007021200555.html> (accessed 5 September 2009).

²⁶ J. Johnson, ‘Forbidden fruit’, op. cit., p. 381.

²⁷ Ariel Cohen, ‘After G-8 summit: China and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization’, China and Eurasia Forum Quarterly, 4(3), 2006, p. 52.

²⁸ Michael Hudson, op. cit.

²⁹ Cited in Michael Hudson, op. cit.

³⁰ Cited in Yuri Zarakhovich, ‘Medvedev clings to advancing the ruble as reserve currency’, 26 June 2009, available at < http://www.jamestown.org/single/?no_cache = 1&tx_ttnews%5Btt_news%5D = 35184> (accessed 2 November 2009).

³² Brian W. Blouet, ‘Halford Mackinder and the pivotal heartland’, in Brian W. Blouet (ed.), Global Geostrategy: Mackinder and the Defence of the West, Frank Cass, London, 2005, p. 6.

³¹ F. William Engdahl, ‘The Eurasian pipeline calculus’, 17 June 2009, available at < http://www.globalresearch.ca/index.php?context = va&aid = 14007> (accessed 2 November 2009).

³³ ‘Northern Tier’ describes the northernmost Near and Middle Eastern countries on the border of or near the Soviet Union. Along with Greece, Iran and Afghanistan, Turkey was considered an indispensable country for the success of the US containment policy in Europe. See: Vassilis K. Fouskas, Zones of Conflict: US Foreign Policy in the Balkans and the Greater Middle East, Pluto Press, London, 2003, pp. 63–75 and Rouhollah Ramazani, The Northern Tier: Afghanistan, Iran, and Turkey, Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ, 1966.

³⁴ Igor Torbakov, ‘Reexamining old concepts about the Caucasus and Central Asia’, 2 April 2004, available at < http://www.eurasianet.org/departments/insight/articles/eav020404a.shtml> (accessed 10 April 2008).

³⁵ Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Importance, Basic Books, New York, 1997, p. 223.

³⁶ Silk Road Strategy Act of 1999, available at < http://www.govtrack.us/congress/bill.xpd?bill = h106-1152> (accessed 3 September 2009).

³⁷ ‘Rusya Büyükelçisi: Ermenistan ve Kürt Açılımlarını Destekliyoruz’, Radikal, 24 October 2009, available at < http://www.radikal.com.tr/Radikal.aspx?aType = RadikalDetay&Date = &ArticleID = 960919> (accessed 2 November 2009).

³⁸ Interagency special 2007 report, International Contracting and Technical Services Department, Under Secretariat of the Turkish Prime Ministry for Foreign Trade; cited in Tuncay Babalı, ‘Turkey at the energy crossroads: present and past’, Middle East Quarterly, 16(2), Spring 2009, pp. 25–33.

³⁹ Mensur Akgun, ‘Rusya'nin Önemi’, Referans, 1 September 2008, available at < http://www.referansgazetesi.com/haber.aspx?HBR_KOD = 105190> (accessed 7 September 2009).

⁴⁰ Annual Report 2007, BOTAŞ (Petroleum Pipeline Corporation), p. 49, retrieved 7 January 2009; ‘Natural gas sale and purchase agreements, natural gas pipeline activities’, Portrait of BOTAŞ Activities, retrieved 21 January 2009; ‘Natural gas and LNG purchases, (gas) trade movements 2007 by pipeline’, BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2008, p. 30, cited in Tuncay Babalı, ‘Turkey at the energy crossroads: present and past’, Middle East Quarterly, 16(2), Spring 2009, pp. 25–33.

⁴¹ ‘Rusya ile ticaret tuttu, Rusya'ya ihracat hedefi 5 milyar dolara çıktı’, Zaman, 10 September 2009, available at < http://www.zaman.com.tr/haber.do?haberno = 890384> (accessed 2 November 2009).