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Articles

Corruption in Urban Latin America: The Case of Bogotá

 

ABSTRACT

Corruption is a long-standing feature of governance in Latin America. Recently, numerous governments have been caught up in a major bribery scandal operated by a major Brazilian building company. Bogotá, the capital of Colombia, is interesting because, in the 1990s and early 2000s, it introduced new processes aimed at preventing corruption in the allocation of public contracts. These processes clearly failed because, between 2008 and 2010, the city’s mayor offered major contracts to some extremely dubious companies. Unusually for Latin America, the guilty mayor has been jailed, along with numerous local Councillors and the contractors. This paper explains how attempts to prevent corruption failed and what steps have been taken since to prevent it happening again. Bogotá’s experience is important because it is one of the best-run cities in Latin America and, if it cannot control corruption, few cities in the region will manage to either.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on the Contributor

Alan Gilbert is Emeritus Professor of Geography at University College London. He has published extensively on housing, poverty, employment, urban governance and corruption.

Notes

1 See B. Warf, ‘Introduction to the Handbook on the Geographies of Corruption’, in Handbook on the geographies of corruption, ed. Warf (Edward Elgar, 2018), 1–13; C. Lessmann and G. Markwardt, G. ‘One Size Fits All? Decentralization, Corruption, and the Monitoring of Bureaucrats’, World Development 38 (2010): 631–46. G. Bose, ‘Bureaucratic Delays and Bribe-Taking’, Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization 54 (2004): 313–20.

2 The seven were Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, México, Paraguay, Peru and the Dominican Republic. Corporación Latinobarómetro, Informe 2018, Santiago.

3 A. Izquierdo, C. Pessino, and G. Vuletin, eds., Better Spending for Better Lives (Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Ban, 2018); ‘Ineficiencia en el gasto público le cuesta cada año US$220.000 millones a la región’, El Espectador, September 24, 2018.

4 Transparency International (2018), https://www.transparency.org/what-is-corruption#define.

5 Transparency International, Corruption perceptions index 2017; Transparency International (2018), op. cit.

6 Transparency International 2017, op. cit.

7 S. Collier, H. Blakemore, and T. Skidmore, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Latin America and the Caribbean (Cambridge University Press, 1985), 190.

8 Ibid., 191.

9 L.M. Schwarcz and H.M. Starling, Brazil: A Biography (Harmondsworth: Allen Lane, 2018).

10 Schwarcz and Starling, op. cit. 601.

11 ‘El tsunami por los sobornos de Odebrecht’, Semana, January 14, 2017.

12 ‘Kuczynski Kaput? Latin America’s Biggest Scandal Threatens to Snare Peru’s President, Too’, The Economist, December 19, 2017.

13 ‘Juan Manuel Santos Calderón’, La Silla Vacía, May 10, 2017; ‘Archivos de Impressa Group, a la que de Odebrecht pagó por afiches de campaña Santos 2010’, El Espectador, July 14, 2016.

14 A. Pérez-Liñán, Presidential Impeachment and the New Political Instability in Latin America (Cambridge University Press, 2007); A. Pérez-Liñán and J. Polga-Hecimovich, ‘Explaining Military Coups and Impeachments in Latin America’, Democratization 24 (2017): 839–58.

15 K.G. Weyland, ‘The politics of corruption in Latin America’, Journal of Democracy 9 (1998): 108–121; Pérez-Liñán, op. cit.; Pérez-Liñán and Polga-Hecimovich, op. cit.; H. Horowitz, ‘Corruption, Crime and Punishment: Recent Scholarship in Latin America’, Latin American Research Review 40 (2005): 268–77.

16 Weyland, op. cit.

17 S. Morris, ‘Corruption in Mexico: Continuity Amid Change’, in Handbook on the Geographies of Corruption, ed. B. Warf (Edward Elgar, 2018), 132–53.

18 Pérez-Liñán, op. cit. and Pérez-Liñán and Polga-Hecimovich,op. cit.

19 Corporación Latinobarómetro (2018) Informe 2018, Santiago.

20 K. Senters and M.S. Winters, ‘Persistent Malfeasance Despite Institutional Innovations and Public Outcry: A Survey of Corruption in Brazil’, in Handbook on the Geographies of Corruption, ed. B. Warf (Edward Elgar, 2018), 154–68.

21 Morris, op. cit., 150.

22 Morris, op. cit., 146; Senters and Winters, op. cit., 164.

23 Weyland, op. cit., 118.

24 C. Enciso and G. Cifuentes, ‘Un balance de cuarenta años de lucha contra la corrupción’, El Tiempo, October 9, 2018.

25 Enciso and Cifuentes, op. cit.

26 ‘Se están robando el país’, Semana, March 5, 2011.

27 ‘El tsunami por los sobornos de Odebrecht’, Semana, January 14, 2017; ‘El escándalo de Odebrecht’, La Silla Vacía, 2018, https://lasillavacia.com/odebrecht.

28 ‘Exsecretario de seguridad de Medellín pagará 33 meses de prisión’, El Tiempo, February 12, 2018.

29 ‘US $1 millón, el soborno que pedía jefe de Unidad Anticorrupción’, El Tiempo, June 27, 2017.

30 ‘Saqueo de la corrupción equivale a casi un billón de pesos por Semana’, El Tiempo, February 26, 2017.

31 Transparency International, 2017, op cit.

32 M. Puentes Lozano, M.E. Cely Gómez, and J.J. Pulido Galindo, ‘Análisis al programa presidencial de transparencia y lucha contra la corrupción’ (SCGES75/d/Martin Cely/2005/Análisis Políticas).

33 ‘La caída del “zar”’, Semana, August 31, 2003.

34 Royalties (regalías) are the monies distributed to local authorities on the basis of natural resource extraction revenues. A. Maldonado Copello, ‘La lucha contra la corrupción en Colombia: La carencia de una política integral’, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung en Colombia, 2011, Policy Paper no. 2.

35 Maldonado, op. cit.

36 Y. Lancheros, ‘Zar anticorrupción habla sobre favoritismos en contratación de Alcaldía’, El Tiempo, March 2, 2009. ‘Gobierno vs. Gobierno’, Semana, July 23, 2011.

37 J-P. Faguet, ‘Decentralization and Governance’, World Development 53 (2013): 2–13.

38 C. Saldías, ‘La descentralización: ¿dónde está el problema?’, Razón Pública, April 3, 2017.

39 Enciso and Cifuentes, op. cit.

40 ‘US $1 millón, el soborno que pedía jefe de Unidad Anticorrupción’, El Tiempo, June 27, 2017; ‘Escándalo por el misterioso avión que no dejaron que fuera interceptado’, Semana, February 24, 2018.

41 P. Bromberg, Los diez años de Bogotá, 1992–2002 (Editorial XII, 2003), http://www.univerciudad.net; R. Montezuma, ‘The transformation of Bogotá, Colombia, 1995–2000: Investing in Citizenship and Urban Mobility’, Global Urban Development 1 (2005); A.G. Gilbert, ‘Urban Governance in the South: How did Bogotá Lose Its Shine?’ Urban Studies 51 (2014): 1–20; A.G. Gilbert and J. Dávila, ‘Bogotá: Progress Within a Hostile Environment’, in Capital City Politics in Latin America: Democratization and Empowerment, ed. D.J. Myers and D.A. Dietz (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2002), 29–64; A.G. Gilbert, ‘Good Urban Governance: Evidence from a Model City?’, Bulletin for Latin American Research 25 (2006): 392–419.

42 A.G. Gilbert, ‘Bus Rapid Transit: Is Transmilenio a Miracle Cure?’, Transport Reviews 28 (2008): 439–67; J. Gómez, Transmilenio: la joya de Bogotá (Bogotá: Transmilenio S.A., c.2004).

43 D. Durán Núñez, ‘Los Nule: de las sociales a las judiciales’, El Espectador, June 18, 2016.

44 M. Rincón, ‘Por corrupción, imputarán cargos a exsecretario de Movilidad de Bogotá’, El Tiempo, June 25, 2016.

45 Javier González Penagos, ‘Por fin concluyó doble calzada Bogotá-Girardot’, El Espectador, April 10, 2014; Y. Lancheros, ‘La calle 26, la historia de la troncal “maldita”’, El Tiempo, June 29, 2012.

46 ‘Los que se fueron’, El Espectador, September 8, 2010.

47 ‘El trasfondo político de la crisis de Samuel Moreno’, Semana, October 22, 2010.

48 The currently low rankings for Enrique Peñalosa owe more to public perception of his arrogance than to suspicion that he is corrupt. However, his links to the cement industry and his willingness to ally himself with ex-president Alvaro Uribe in a bid for the presidency do not wholly free him from suspicion.

49 BCV (Bogotá Como Vamos) (2017) Encuesta de Percepción Ciudadana 2017.

50 ‘El segundo bogotazo’, Semana, April 13, 2013.

51 M. Ramírez, ‘Carrusel de la contratación: corrupción y escándalo en Bogotá’, November 4, 2015, http://www.colombialegalcorp.com/carrusel-de-la-contratacion-corrupcion-escandalo-bogota/.

52 ‘“En el contrato de la calle 26 se perdieron 100 millones de dólares”: Miguel Nule’, El Espectador, November 19, 2013.

53 ‘El segundo bogotazo’, Semana, April 13, 2013; ‘“En el contrato de la calle 26 se perdieron 100 millones de dólares”: Miguel Nule’, El Espectador, November 19, 2013.

54 Y. Lancheros, ‘Zar anticorrupción habla sobre favoritismos en contratación de Alcaldía’, El Tiempo, March 2, 2009.

55 F.A. Acuña and J.G. Rodríguez, ‘Samuel Moreno, el carrusel y la corrupción en Bogotá’, Razón Pública, March 20, 2016.

56 M. Vidal, ‘El objetivo ahora debe ser lograr el renacer del Valle del Cauca’, El Pais, February 13, 2011.

57 Vidal, op.cit.

58 Several members of his family had earned a reputation for corruption when occupying positions of power.

59 J.C. Flórez, ‘El mamut burocrático y las mafias de la corrupción’, El Espectador, February 19, 2011.

60 ‘En las entrañas del monstruo’, Semana, March 5, 2011.

61 ‘La corrupción hizo metástasis’, Semana, January 29, 2017.

62 ‘Más líos en las alcaldías locales de Bogotá’, El Tiempo, September 12, 2017; ‘¿Tráfico de influencias en la Personería?’, El Espectador, April 25, 2017.

63 F.A. Acuña and J.G. Rodríguez, ‘Samuel Moreno, el carrusel y la corrupción en Bogotá’, Razón Pública, March 20, 2016.

64 A. Marín Correa, ‘Corrupción y política: la desconfianza en la Contraloría de Bogotá’, El Espectador, October 27, 2018.

65 Ibid.

66 ‘Caso Odebrecht: contra las cuerdas contralor de Bogotá, Juan Carlos Granados’, El Tiempo, October 29, 2018.

67 ‘El fallo que salvaría a la Personera de Bogotá de un carcelazo’, El Espectador, July 23, 2018.

68 The Congress of Colombia consists of the 102-seat Senate (Senado), and the 166-seat House of representatives (Cámara de Representantes). Members of both houses are elected by popular vote to serve four-year terms.

69 ‘Políticos con prontuario que siguen conquistando votos’, Semana, October 14, 2017.

70 ‘La cuenta regresiva de la consulta anticorrupción’, Semana, July 6, 2017.

71 ‘Petro se trepa al primer lugar en intención de voto en la Gran Encuesta’, Semana, February 2, 2018.

72 ‘Vargas, Duque y De la Calle: las coincidencias sorprenden en el primer “cara a cara”’, Semana, February 13, 2018.

73 ‘Consulta anticorrupción en Colombia: ¿quién ganó y quién perdió?’, CNN Español, August 27, 2018.

74 ‘Contrarreloj para aprobar los 15 proyectos anticorrupción’, El Tiempo, October 29, 2018.

75 ‘Personería de Bogotá adelanta 2.850 investigaciones contra funcionarios de la Alcaldía’, El Espectador, August 17, 2018; ‘El Caso Odebrecht: contra las cuerdas contralor de Bogotá, Juan Carlos Granados’, El Espectador, October 29, 2018.

76 J. González Penagos, ‘Ordenan 30 días de arresto por desacato’, El Espectador, June 26, 2018; ‘El fallo que salvaría a la Personera de Bogotá de un carcelazo’, El Espectador, July 23, 2018.

77 E. Pasotti, Political Branding in Cities: The Decline of Machine Politics in Bogotá, Naples, and Chicago (Cambridge U.P. 2010), 183.

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