Abstract
Due to increasing demand and subsequent pressures on medicinal plants, it is imperative to understand their distribution and conservation status in their natural habitats. We studied the distribution pattern and current conservation status of six threatened medicinal plants in alpine grassland of Gurez valley, Kashmir, by random quadrate sampling (n = 315) in different habitat types. Informal interviews and group discussions with family elders were held to obtain information on different uses of medicinal plants. Our results indicate that Podophyllum hexandrum Royle is most common and has the highest density, while Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth and Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo are least frequent. Flat tableland (FL) situated above the tree line and moist rocky slopes (MR) were the most preferred habitats followed by moist meadow (MM) while the shady slopes (SSs) and flat meadow (FM) (stable) were least preferred. The plant species are used to cure different ailments at a household level while a few are also sold commercially. However, the degree and nature of use varies between the communities. Our findings can help to formulate a conservation strategy for the hitherto unknown grasslands of Gurez valley. While the low and localized distribution of all studied species deserves effective conservation strategies, the scope of such measures should also be user specific to address the reliance of local communities on these plants.
Introduction
Human society depends on numerous natural resources, amongst which plants play an important role providing food, clothing, timber, fuel, medicine and so on. In fact humans have been using plants since ages to cure different ailments and of the total 297,000–510,000 plant species found worldwide (Schippmann et al. Citation2002) about 70,000 (ca. 10–18%) are believed to be used in healthcare (Prajapati et al. Citation2003). Of the total native plant wealth (17,500) of India, about 34% (ca. 6000) are known to have medicinal importance (Ved Citation2008). The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) – a rich storehouse of these medicinal plants – records a total of 1748 species (Samant et al. Citation1998). However, most of these species are experiencing tremendous pressure due to over and illegal exploitation and are no longer found in accessible habitats in large quantities (Vashistha et al. Citation2006). Besides the low availability of these plants, many herbs either are on the threshold of extinction (Nautiyal et al. Citation2002) or have become rare or endangered (Kala Citation2006).
The medicinal use of plants by the nomadic and migratory Gujjars and Bakerwals in Kashmir has been documented previously (Navchoo and Bhat Citation1994; Khan et al. Citation2004). However, a periodic and continuous monitoring of these species in the wild is largely lacking with the available information being either qualitative (Dhar and Kachroo Citation1983) or ethnobotanical (Dar et al. Citation1984; Ara and Naqshi Citation1992). Therefore, this study was undertaken in one of the alpine grasslands of Gurez valley, Kashmir, to report on the distribution pattern, indigenous uses and availability of six threatened medicinal plants (Aconitum heterophyllum Wall, Dactylorhiza hatagirea (D. Don) Soo, Fritillaria roylei Hooker, Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth, Podophyllum hexandrum Royle and Rheum webbianum Royle).
Materials and methods
Gurez valley
Located on the banks of the river Kishenganga, the Gurez valley extends between 34°30′–4°41′N and 74°37′–74°46′E latitudes at an average altitude of about 2370 m a.s.l. One has to cross the coldest and dangerous peak Razdan located above 4000 m a.s.l. to reach the valley. The diverse topography, unique environment, climate and the varying habitats contribute to its rich biodiversity. The valley houses a unique Shina-speaking tribe of Dards who have been cut off from their mainland Astore, Gilgit and Chilas across the Line of Control. Although over the past few decades the area has been influenced much by Kashmiri culture, still it represents a distinct socio-cultural and linguistic identity.
Study site
This study was carried out at alpine grassland in Minimarg, which is located at a distance of 16 km from the headquarters (Dawar) of Gurez valley, on its eastern side. The area extends between 34°31′33.6′′–34°33′06.6″N and 074°51′40.6″–074°53′39.6″E at an average altitude of 3240 m a.s.l. The diverse topographic features offer many habitats and microhabitat types for a variety of herb species to grow in the main grassland area while woody Pinus, Oak, Betula and Cedrus grow in the nearby forest. A few Betula trees are also scattered in the main grassland. With the melting of snow the vegetation starts growing from late April and comes to its full bloom during June to September and starts dying out by the end of October. Then the area experiences heavy snowfall and remains cut off from the outside world till May of next year. Coinciding well with this cycle are the movements of nomads and semi-nomads who come from adjoining as well as far-off places and use this area as their summer grazing ground for their livestock. The area is unique as all the three ethnic communities (nomadic Bakerwals, semi-nomadic Gujjars and semi-sedentary Kashmiri shepherds (Chopans/Puhloos in Kashmiri)) utilize the area. Besides domestic livestock some wild animals like Himalayan black bear (Selenarctos tibetanus), Brown bear (Ursus arctos) and Marmot (Marmota himalayana) are also common in this area.
Methods
Sampling was conducted at the peak expressions of the species (June–September) during 2008–2009. For information on the availability and presence of medicinal plants, a reconnaissance survey of the vegetation was done and a detailed study on all the ecological habitats was made and plants growing in each habitat recorded. Many medicinal plant species were encountered in the adjacent forest area, but since our study was restricted to grassland, threatened medicinal plants (n = 6) from the main grassland only were selected to assess their distribution, dominance and current status. Some important features of the included species are presented in . Initially 12 sites were identified but because the selected species were observed in only 9 sites, the other 3 were eliminated from further analysis. Therefore, all estimates will only be applicable for sites where the species occur and cannot be extrapolated for the entire area. The site features are provided in .
Table 1. Characteristic features of selected species at Minimarg, Gurez
Table 2. Characteristics of the nine selected sites at Minimarg, Gurez
At each site the detailed information on species performance (frequency, abundance and cover) was obtained from randomly placed quadrates (n = 35) of 50 × 50 cm size following Misra (Citation1968). Analytical features for population study and distribution pattern like percentage frequency (% F), density (plants per m2) and cover (visual estimation) were calculated for each species across all sites. The values were then averaged to calculate Importance Value Index (IVI) of individual species following Cottam and Curtis (Citation1956) and Misra (Citation1968). For each habitat type, species diversity (Shannon–Wiener diversity index; H′) and evenness (E) were calculated as and E = H′/In S, respectively, where S = number of species and pi
= proportion of species i (Shannon and Weaver Citation1949; Magguran Citation1988).
One-way ANOVA was applied to test differences between mean species diversity and species richness among the different habitat types. The source of variations included quadrates (df = 34), sites (df = 8) and quadrates (df = 34), sites (df = 1) for all habitats and between any two habitats, respectively.
Information and data pertaining to the traditional method of medicinal uses were obtained through a structured questionnaire survey conducted among the family elders of all visiting households (n = 23). As all the three ethnic community tribes use this grassland ecosystem, it helped us to get a comparative account of the utilization of plants and their pattern. But it also added to the bias of our data as the number differed between the three tribes (nine Gujjars, nine Bakerwals and five Puhloo households). In addition we also conducted unstructured informal interviews with other family members (n = 18; 13 males and 5 females) and group discussions (n = 3) to further comprehend our understanding on the local name, traditional use, part used, current nature of use (household consumption or commercial) and recent trend in species status. As the semi-sedentary tribe (Chopans) migrates without female tribe members, this further added to the bias of our data.
Results
Density and distribution of species
The distribution of species varied significantly among different habitats and none of the species occurred on all the habitats. P. hexandrum was found on four different habitats, A. heterophyllum and F. roylei occurred on two while P. kurroa and R. webbianum were found only on flat tableland (FL). The critically endangered D. hatagirea recorded on only a single habitat type indicated its narrow distribution (). FL and moist rocky slope (MR) were the preferred habitat types with each growing three species followed by moist meadow (MM) with two species while others grew only a single species each. The shady slopes (SSs) regardless of their aspect also grew only a lone species – P. hexandrum.
Table 3. Distribution, density and frequency of selected taxa across the different habitat types at Minimarg, Gurez
Observations on the averaged distribution of the species across all sites revealed P. hexandrum to be most frequent (F = 13.96%) and P. kurroa and D. hatagirea as least frequent (7.29% each), while F. roylei (F = 15.62%) and A. heterophyllum (F = 14.58%) were intermediate with moderate distribution (). While P. hexandrum and P. kurroa indicated highest density (1.24 ind./m2 each), the presence of P. kurroa in a single habitat type with the highest density emphasized its narrow and squeezed distribution. The least frequent D. hatagirea had also the lowest density (0.13 ind./m2).
Table 4. Phytosociological parameters of the threatened medicinal plants at Minimarg, Gurez
Significant variation in the distribution between individual habitats was observed. The highest frequency (25.71%) recorded for P. hexandrum and P. kurroa (20%) was on SS and FL, respectively, while the lowest frequency (8.57%) was found for F. roylei on MM. A. heterophyllum was most frequent (17.14%) on FL and least (11.42%) on both MR and flat (stable) meadow (FM) (aspect northeast). However, for density the trend altered significantly as P. kurroa showed highest density (10.84 ind./m2) in FL while the lowest density (0.92 ind./m2) was found for A. heterophyllum on MR.
IVI of each species was calculated to measure their numerical strength and assess their contribution to the total plant community. On a per cent basis the contribution of all studied species together to the total IVI is too small (2.36%). This low availability of the species across different habitat types emphasized their current status for the grassland under study. Further between the species, the highest (1.08%) and the lowest (0.12%) IVI recorded were for P. hexandrum and D. hatagirea, respectively.
Diversity of habitat types and community analysis
Across all the habitat types, vegetation was a mosaic of short rhizomatous perennials, cushion and sprawling forbs, few prostrate shrubs and tall growing nitrophilic herbs and sub shrubs. A contiguous distribution of species was recorded with species like Lagotis cashmeriana (Royle) Rupr, Sibbaldia cuneata Hornem. ex Kuntze, Trifolium repens Linn, Rumex nepalensis Spreng, Rumex patientia L, Senecio chrysanthemoides DC, Poa annua L, Juncus thomsonii Buchen, Ranunculus hirtellus Royle ex D.Don, Phlomis bracteosa Royle ex Benth, Tanacetum longifolium Wall.ex DC, Iris hookeriana Foster and Myosotis sylvatica Ehrh. ex Hoffm being observed commonly across the surveyed habitats. The relative association of various taxa with the studied species is included in .
The diversity, evenness and richness indicated marked differences among different habitats. Of all habitat types MR indicated the highest diversity (2.75) followed closely by open (gentle) slope (2.74) while the lowest diversity (1.52) recorded was for the FM. Species evenness also followed a similar trend with the highest number (0.89) at MR followed by open slope (0.88) and lowest (0.62) at the least diverse FM.
Both diversity (F = 8.86; F cric = 1.96 and p < 0.01) and evenness (F = 7.74; F cric = 1.94 and p < 0.01) differed significantly between the habitat types. However, between the two SSs, evenness (F = 4.02; F cric = 3.98 and p < 0.05) and not the diversity (F = 0.03; F cric = 3.98 and p > 0.01) was statistically significant. Interestingly between the flat stable meadows it was vice versa, with (F = 6.44; F cric= 3.98 and p < 0.01) for diversity and (F = 2.39; F cric= 3.98 and p > 0.01) for evenness, respectively.
Folklore uses of assessed species
Similar to other Himalayan mountain grasslands, Minimarg (Gurez) is rich in medicinal plants. The knowledge on the habitat distribution, uses and mode of use of these plants is maintained well within all the three ethnic tribes which use this area during the summer months. The community elders and women folk have a good knowledge of the habitat, life history features, regeneration and uses of medicinal plants they collect. The continued belief of these communities on these high-altitude plants (traditional medicine) and the absence of alternative modern medicine facilities for them have greatly affected their source of medicine at this high-altitude area. Data collected through the questionnaires highlighted the indigenous uses and reflected the collection, trade and reliance () of these ethnic people on the high-altitude medicinal plants.
Table 5. Categorization of the assessed taxa into different groups
Nearly all these plant species are used to cure common ailments like cough, cold, headache, asthma, fever, bronchitis and stomach pain by all three ethnic tribes. Furthermore, species like D. hatagirea and A. heterophyllum are also used for some specific cases. The broad range of medicinal applications of F. roylei is evident from its vernacular name (‘Sheetkar’ means it can cure 80 diseases). A comparison of species indicates that A. heterophyllum, D. hatagirea and P. kurroa are among the prioritized medicinal plants for these people in terms of their ethnomedicinal properties and uses. These plants have known antibacterial, anti-inflammatory and antipyretic properties, which together with their high market value make them a species of choice among all the three communities. These plants are also used frequently for their ethnoveterinary applications by these tribes. Notable in this regard is R.webbianum and P. kurroa, which are used by the communities to cure different diseases of their livestock. Specifically R. webbianum is used to cure, cough, dysentery, eye diseases, skin disease, constipation, mastitis, hoof diseases, internal injury and broken horn of livestock by these communities while P. kurroa is used by Bakerwals and Gujjars mostly to cure alimentary disorders, indigestion, tonsils and intestinal worms of livestock. Similarly P. hexandrum and D. hatagirea are specifically used for cuts, wounds and bone fracture.
Analysis of group discussion and informal interviews revealed that the degree of use varies greatly among the ethnic groups. While the Bakerwals and Gujjars use the plants for both household and commercial purpose, the semi-sedentary shepherds use them mostly for their household consumption (). Furthermore, the pattern of collection also differed between the communities. The women of the Gujjars and Bakerwals continually migrate with their men to these high-altitude grasslands and collect these medicinal plants. But in semi-sedentary Chopans such a division is lacking as there the women do not migrate.
Discussion
Considering that IVI provides an excellent marker for understanding the status of distribution and availability across varying environmental and biotic conditions (Ram and Arya Citation1991; Negi et al. Citation1992), this paper has described the distribution pattern and the current conservation status of threatened medicinal plants from a hitherto unknown Gurez valley, Kashmir. Relative values of the assessed species were tabulated and compared () and based on this, it was found that P. hexandrum is widely distributed () in different habitat types, P. kurroa and R. webbianum are heavily localized while F. roylei and D. hatagirea have low distribution and density. The high frequency of P. hexandrum stems from its ability to grow in varied habitat types and complete the life cycle. In addition, it's relatively lesser use and the part used frequently, that is fruit, also adds to its high frequency and density. However, the other species are highly localized and prone to grazing and trampling besides the part used being rhizomes and tubers which require destructive harvesting. All these factors add to their low density and availability, which is well reflected from our results.
Table 6. Comparative account of population status (density/m2) of studied species in different Himalayan regions
Species frequency and density are efficient ways to reveal the distribution and strength of any species in a landscape (Alhamad Citation2006). Comparing these features with similar studies conducted outside Gurez valley, it is evident that our values on density and distribution are low (). As no scientific reporting from the area has been done and there are no historical data on the distribution of the assessed species from the upper reaches of the Gurez valley which historically have been used for grazing, it appears that the sampled species are the remnants of a previously large population which over the years have narrowed in their distribution due to a multitude of factors, many of which went unnoticed. Not all assessed species are preferred by animals, but because the area is visited mostly by goats and sheep (personal observations) which are both non-selective in foraging (Chandrashekhar et al. Citation2007), it adds to the damage. Trampling is the other damaging factor which seems to have affected these species enormously in open areas and squeezed their distribution. In the elsewhere IHR, earlier studies (Nautiyal et al. Citation1997; Pandey et al. Citation2000) have also reported grazing, trampling, biotic interference and low seed viability to be responsible for the diminishing population of these species. Our results also highlighted the low availability (population size) and habitat specificity of these species in the wild (). This has important conservation implications as the species with specific habitat requirements are at greater risk than the species with broad habitat range (Samant et al. Citation1996); besides a minimum population size is required for the long-term viability of rare and endangered species (Cunningham and Saigo Citation1999).
The communities included in this study are rural and migrate seasonally to the higher alpine areas for livestock grazing. The people have learned the medicinal usage of plants that grow in their proximity since ages (Khuroo et al. Citation2007). This was also evident from the information we collected through the questionnaire survey and group discussions held. The wealth of practical knowledge on the various plants, their distribution and the traditional uses further strengthens this argument. However, to represent the best range of the ethnomedicinal use of various high-altitude species, more efforts need to put in conducting a comprehensive ethnobotanical survey of the whole Gurez valley with due attention paid towards studying the conservation status of the important and rare medicinal herbs.
The migration pattern of the communities differs largely and among the three tribes, Bakerwals are truly migratory and nomadic, Gujjars are semi-nomadic but the Kashmiri Chopans are semi-sedentary. This division was also reflected in the difference in the utility of the plants among the three communities, with Chopans and their young ones using the least number of the assessed species and that too in minimum number of ways (). This adds to our observation that the younger generations of the Chopans treat the folklore knowledge as primitive and incompatible with the contemporary societal ideas. Consequently, the older generation, which harbours this wealth of the knowledge, is degenerating and dying without passing on this invaluable legacy. This subtle change will bear a long-term upshot on the maintenance and continuation of the indigenous knowledge to subsequent generations, which will greatly affect the way these medicinal plants are used and managed by these communities.
Conclusions
On the basis of this investigation, it was not possible to extrapolate our findings to the whole Gurez valley and draw clear causal relationships between their low availability and the historical use of the grasslands. Given various impediments to the conservation of these threatened medicinal plants and very little efforts thus far from the government and local institutions, there is an urgent need for an effective and long-term biodiversity conservation programme in these high-altitude ecosystems. We therefore propose that the information in this paper can be utilized to establish potential habitats for the long-term conservation of the assessed species and to formulate a conservation strategy for these high-altitude ecosystems. Furthermore, we conclude that the species with a very low density and population size like D. hatagirea and A. heterophyllum require our immediate attention. Ensuring the protection of wild plant populations without adversely affecting the lifestyle and livelihood pattern of the local communities and promoting cultivation of these plant species for commercial purposes are two important steps advocated for the long-term sustenance of these medicinal plants in these ecosystems.
Acknowledgements
Thanks to the Gujjar and other migratory nomads at Minimarg for providing the accommodation, food and sharing their ethnobotanical knowledge with us. Suggestions and encouragement from Prof. A. R. Naqshi and Qazi Aashiq Hussain are also greatly acknowledged.
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