The status and challenges of higher education curricula reforms in four highly developed regional/national settings

Abstract

In this article (part one of two) I will consider, using the dramatistic model pioneered by Kenneth Burke, the ‘scene’ or historical cultural ground of each ‘highly developed’ national/regional area (The EU, the USA, Hong Kong [SAR], and Singapore) in terms of their Higher Education (HE) systems. After these analyses, then I look to the ‘agent’ who put Curricula Reform (CR) into place (usually Ministries of (higher) education, but also labor ministries) in pursuit of ‘relevance,’ and then to the ‘agency’ or means that they employ (or not) to make their ‘acts’ of Curricula Reforms effective. I first look to the EU example, which has seen a great change in the era of the ‘Bologna Process’ which includes not only the established Western European nations, but also countries of Central and Eastern Europe that have been transitioning out of communism, second to the American (USA) universities that have embraced a ‘common core’ curriculum, Harvard and Columbia Universities in particular, third, to Hong Kong (which has been moving from a traditional British system to an integrated senior high school and early university studies model based on the American ‘common core’), and fourth and finally, Singapore's third stage of developing an HE system well adapted to a ‘knowledge society.’

Keywords:

• curricula reforms in higher education
• European Union
• Bologna Process
• USA
• Hong Kong SAR (China)
• Singapore
• common ‘core’ curricula (undergraduate education)

Acknowledgement

This study was supported by a 2011 Hannam University Research Fund granted by the Linton Global College (Korea).

Notes

1. Meaning remedial education in universities that should be included in robust secondary education settings.

2. See former UNESCO Director-General Federico Mayor's (1997) vision of the ‘University as Watchtower,’ he cautions:

We face a dilemma: higher education must respond to and interact with the globalization of communications, of the market economy which appears to dominate today's world. It should do so not just out of necessity, but as a stimulating and creative challenge. However, if we create market universities, run purely on market principles with a market vision, they may be of their age but will not transcend their age. If they only adjust or adapt to circumstances, rather than fulfill an anticipatory role, they will not be able to help shape the future. (2)

3. Accountable to ‘whom’ of the ‘larger society’ remains the question, however, in that the scope of power of the traditional, stable, ‘nation-state’ even within its own borders, is now very much under question. Polish philosopher Marek Kwiek (2001) states:

Thus, the potential decline of the project of modernity and of the nation-state entails the potential decline of the institution of the modern university, requiring the latter to search for a new place in culture and new ideas to support the organization of its functioning at the very moment when the harmonious co-operation of power and knowledge – or, more precisely, of the politics of the nation-state and the national consciousness provided by the university – has ended. Globalization brings about the devalorization of all national projects, one of them being the institution of the (nation- and state-oriented) university. If behind the university there are no longer the ideas of nation, reason, and (national) culture, then either new ideas have to be discovered or the university is doomed to surrender to the all-encompassing logic of consumerism. Within this logic, the university, free of its associations with power, devoid of modern national and state missions, exists merely to ‘sell’ its educational ‘product’ as a bureaucratic educational corporation. (35)

Perhaps the best that can be hoped for is what sociologist John Urry has dubbed a ‘new medievalism,’ which can be defined as ‘overlapping, competing institutions (political, corporate, regional trading blocs) free to go their own way, thanks to the lack of any single major threatening political power to upset the status quo’ (in Gilder 2000).

4. This use, following Morsy, includes humanistic studies in its remit.

5. The actual authors were a consortium of researchers headed by Jeroen Huisman of the University of Bath (UK).

6. Emphases in the quotation are mine, to better point out factors seen as key to the curricula reform processes in the EU context.

7. According to the ‘About the Bologna Process’ entry (July, 2007) on the (immediate-past) secretariat website, ‘the envisaged European Higher Education Area will: (1) facilitate mobility of students, graduates and higher education staff; (2) prepare students for their future careers and for life as active citizens in democratic societies, and support their personal development; and (3) offer broad access to high-quality higher education, based on democratic principles and academic freedom.’

8. Heitman argues herein that the key issue is usually how to adapt existing curricula to new demands, not having the luxury of ‘starting from scratch’:

Less the requirement for new curricula in the Bologna Process context but the paradigm shift to outcomes orientation and student learning have recently fostered the use of systematic and comprehensive approaches. Pressures on programme providers and faculty have been worldwide caused by respective accreditation or external quality evaluation demands. A prominent example is the ‘2-loop process’ of the Accreditation Board of Engineering and Technology (ABET), USA, used to evaluate and assess programmes applying for accreditation (http://www.abet.org) Not only does it illustrate the link between the ‘outside world’ and the internal programme development and quality assurance process but determines clearly the subsequent steps to be taken when designing or evaluating a certain programme: Starting from educational objectives agreed on by the different constituencies or parties involved the curriculum design has to:

• determine outcomes required to achieve objectives,

• determine how learning outcomes will be achieved,

• determine how learning outcomes will be assessed,

• establish indicators for outcomes to lead to achievement of objectives,

• organise the teaching/learning processes,

• assess the outcomes against the learning objectives,

• use the assessment results to start the process again if necessary. (452–53).

9. Emphasis is mine.

10. Medical and Engineering degrees are allowed longer first-degree timelines.

11. Informally, college-bound youth had been subject to national testing via the SAT and ACT college entrance examinations.

12. See Kandel (1958).

13. The A Nation at Risk report, comparing 1964–1969 to 1976–1981 data, found that the content of high school education had deteriorated. It stated:

•	Secondary school curricula have been homogenized, diluted, and diffused to the point that they no longer have a central purpose. In effect, we have a cafeteria style curriculum in which the appetizers and desserts can easily be mistaken for the main courses. Students have migrated from vocational and college preparatory programs to ‘general track’ courses in large numbers. The proportion of students taking a general program of study has increased from 12% in 1964 to 42% in 1979.
•	This curricular smorgasbord, combined with extensive student choice, explains a great deal about where we find ourselves today. We offer intermediate algebra, but only 31% of our recent high school graduates complete it; we offer French I, but only 13% complete it; and we offer geography, but only 16% complete it. Calculus is available in schools enrolling about 60% of all students, but only 6% of all students complete it.
•	Twenty-five percent of the credits earned by general track high school students are in physical and health education, work experience outside the school, remedial English and mathematics, and personal service and development courses, such as training for adulthood and marriage. (n.p.)

Combined with lowered expectations for academic performance and lesser qualified teachers, this result meant that ‘general-track’ (and even ‘college track’) students, upon entering further and higher education would require more ‘basic knowledge’ (i.e., ‘core curricula’ training).

14. A traditional humanist, Allan Bloom, attacked the universities along the same line as did the A Nation at Risk authors, in his Closing of the American Mind (1987) jeremiad.

15. Aesthetic and interpretive understanding; Culture and belief; Empirical reasoning; Ethical reasoning; Science of living systems; Science of the physical universe; Societies of the world; and, the United States in the world.

16. Columbia College's core curriculum defines ten specific class offerings covering the inquiry needed for a broad ‘general education’ (as opposed to Harvard's eight areas): Contemporary Civilization, Literature Humanities, University Writing, Art Humanities, Music Humanities, Frontiers of Science, Science Requirement, Global Core Requirement, Foreign Language Requirement, Physical Education Requirement.

17. As for the overall purpose, ‘the Fordham College proposal attempts to state in general terms the goal of a college education. It is ‘to foster and direct the religious, moral, intellectual and cultural development of a free and mature adult.’ This general statement means that the graduates should possess:

(1) an understanding of their own tradition and of the meaning of human life and its ultimate goals; (2) a knowledge of the natural and social sciences and their role in shaping contemporary culture; (3) an awareness of the creative expression of values and experience in literary and artistic works; (4) skills to evaluate critically their religious, moral and intellectual heritage and to express their evaluation to themselves and others; and (5) ability to act in contemporary society in a responsible and effective way. It should be noted that these five elements are aims to be achieved by the end of four years. The core curriculum is to assist in this by outlining a broad intellectual experience for all students. (Roth 1980, 294)

18. In addition to its long established interdisciplinary University Scholars Programme and General Studies Department, the National University of Singapore (NUS) has just signed a MOU with Yale University (USA) to found a free-standing liberal arts college at NUS. The Minister of Education and Second Minister of Defence, Dr. Ng Eng Hen, stated to the Yale University faculty:

It is timely to consider introducing liberal arts education in Singapore. Yale is a world-class university and has a strong tradition in liberal arts education. The Government is supportive of NUS' and Yale's efforts to develop a liberal arts model that will attract top students, and that is contextualised to Singapore and Asia.

In reply, the President of Yale University, Professor Richard C. Levin, stated:

It is very exciting to contemplate collaborating with the National University of Singapore to create a new educational model for the 21st century, contextualised especially for Asia. There has never been greater need for undergraduate education that cultivates critical inquiry. In a world that is increasingly interconnected, the qualities of mind developed through liberal education are perhaps more indispensable than ever in preparing students to understand and appreciate differences across cultures and national boundaries, and to address problems for which there are no easy solutions.

It remains to be seen how the new-found embrace of ‘critical thinking’ skills among Singaporean students will square with the effective disbarment of (mainly liberal-arts trained) intellectuals in the city-state from the political sphere. As John Clammer (notably a foreign professor based in Japan) has argued (2001), the ‘intensely politicized’ public sphere extant there is structured to exclude voices other than the favored technocratic ones:

The community of intellectuals traditionally having been seen as having a critical and hermeneutic role in and towards society – those in historical, literary and social science disciplines – is consequently very small in relation to the total university community, and is generally regarded as being lowest in status in the ranking of disciplines and under constant pressure to perform the useful functional roles clearly visible amongst their technological colleagues. Criticism, whether voiced directly or embodied in the research of an independent spirit and which may call into question the current political or social verities, is seen from ‘above’ as at best carping and at worst as disloyalty. This is limited by central control of research funds, censorship of papers to be delivered at overseas conferences before leave can be granted, the power to deny promotion and to cancel or fail to renew contracts and the lack of a staff union to protect or speak on behalf of its members.… All these factors very effectively operate to block even an independent voice, let alone any form of open dissent. (205)

Sociologist Richard Florida (2005) has argued that creative cities require a magic mixture of ‘technology, talent and tolerance’ to thrive. In a recent interview, he described the tolerance element as central:

What I say in my work is that there's this third T – apart from Technology and Talent – called Tolerance. The reason this third T is an important part of economic growth and economic advantage is because it attracts talented creative people from all races, ethnicities, income ranges – whether they're white, black, Hispanic, Latino, Asia, Indian, women, men, single, married, or gay. So places that are the most tolerant, the most diverse, the most, in words of the new book, ‘proactively inclusive’ have an addition [sic] economical advantage.

And, in fact, that's what I believe has really been the core of America's economic advantage for over the course of at least a century, more likely two centuries. It's not been a lot of raw materials, a big market, or just been our American Yankee ingenuity or even our stock of technology. We, in fact, imported most of our technology in the early days from England and Germany. It's really been our emphasis on being open – providing economic opportunity, for sure, but being open to people, culturally and politically. (‘The Flight from America’)

While the ‘powers that be’ in the Singapore city-state see the benefits of embracing the social-progress triad (already having the first two elements), the actual results on the ground are still open to debate.

19. Of course, one cannot overlook the larger issues of integrating Hong Kong HE sector more into an overall Chinese-directed national development policy, and not just consider the institutional perspective shown here (cf. Hughes and Stone 1999).

20. Here, this mission statement seeks to form what Yi-Fu Tuan (2010), an emeritus professor of geography at the University of Wisconsin at Madison, calls ‘A New Cosmopolitanism,’ asking what the ‘defining idea’ of the next ten years will be. He defines this sense of identity as distinct from either identities as ‘ethnics’ and ‘globalists,’ going beyond the limitations of these opposites:

How might we label ourselves in the 21st century? To risk a broad generalization, I say we are either ethnics or globalists. As ethnics, we hold on to certain cultural traits – headgear, art, cuisine – that we deem essential to our identity and self-esteem. But ethnics lack the sense of centrality that primitive cosmopolites had. As globalists, we are also limited. True, our connections are worldwide, but they are confined to financial transactions, the acquisition, exchange, and fusion of material goods, customs, and fashions, all very playfully, even creatively, done, but with an underlying sense of insecurity. Above all, as globalists we lack anchorage in the cosmos: We do not see ourselves as citizens of the stars above and the earth beneath, which is my way of saying that we globalists, for all our wealth and technical knowledge, are deficient in grandeur, in a sense of our dignity as human beings.

Tuan defines ‘cosmopolites’ differently from the common use of the term. ‘Why?’ he rhetorically asks, then answers: ‘Because they lived in a world that included the sky above and the earth below, and because they believed themselves to be the fount of human culture, a belief made [somewhat paradoxically] possible by their isolation.’ (n.p.)

21. The ‘334’ stands for 3 + 3+4 academic cycle, which seeks to place within modern Hong Kong education a strong ‘core curricula’ general education requirement, similar to US college programs in place at Harvard University and Columbia University. (The first 3 refers to three years for junior secondary school, the second 3 to three years senior secondary school and the 4 for four years undergraduate university studies, replacing the traditional British-style system of five years secondary and two years college-preparatory education.) See (The 4^th) ‘3 + 3+4 Symposium on General Education’ (3 June, 2009) and The Hong Kong Institute of Education ‘334 Academic Reform’ (n.d.) for explanation.

22. Answering the question, ‘Why do we need to change?’ then Deputy Secretary for Education and Manpower Chris Wardlaw (2004) stated that:

We are making these changes because society and our economy is changing dramatically and the rapid development of new technologies and knowledge and increasing global competitiveness require that Hong Kong nurtures the talents of not just a few people, but all of its human resources. This will be greatly helped by having a bigger proportion of students complete a broadly-based high quality education at school. An additional year of senior secondary education for every student and an additional year in university education will raise the overall quality of our young people.

We know that Hong Kong's participation rates in senior secondary education and post-secondary education, though improved significantly in recent years, are still low by international standards. We also know that a narrow knowledge base continues to dominate teaching. We have been giving more attention to teaching students how to learn in Basic Education and now need to continue in the later years of schooling to create life-long learning and a learning society.

It seemed that in the old ‘British style’ system, not many students got to ‘sixth forum’ (grades 11–12), and the new system will ensure that most all students can, at least, complete twelve years of schooling.

23. The resource listing here cites Australian, EU, British, US curricula reform links, and sports many articles on ‘general education’ as well as the Boyer Report on academic teaching and research. As noted by Mary Hennock (18 July, 2010) this ‘common core covers four “areas of inquiry,” as they are known: humanities; global issues; Chinese culture, state, and society; and scientific and technological literacy.’ She then quotes Gwyn Edwards, coordinator for the common-core curriculum and a former member of the education faculty, who states, ‘”We're trying to get away from the idea that there's a body of essential knowledge,” rather … “the common core is an attempt to engage students with questions about the human condition.’” (n.p.)

24. See Hennock, M. (2010). This point is amplified by a commentator (1. 22286593 – July 19, 2010 at 01:19 hours) in response to the CHE article on the topic. He or she states:

What is unfolding in UHK is fascinating. We will see if UHK's take on liberal arts education abides by the most important aspect of liberal arts education – that the purpose of education is to instill in students an independent mind and a critical understanding on the world (including the role of higher education itself). Done right, this would be oppositional to the Asian vision of higher education (apart from India) – one that has stressed vocational/professional skills, acceptance of existing political and social hegemony, and perhaps most importantly, to affirm the Confucian ideals of education as an acceptable mode of social hierarchy. I hope UHK will use this moment so that liberal arts education to lead students to critically question the world instead of absorbing liberal arts as yet another tool in the race toward social mobility and another privileged source of social distinction. (n.p.)

25. This valuable comparative study analyzes the HE steering systems of Singapore, Australia and other selected OECD countries, from a socio-economic perspective. Their policy advice is as follows:

With these countries’ experiences in mind, we postulate that there are three key dimensions for a successful education- reform process: A strategy based on socioeconomic priorities, an education-sector operating model, and a viable education infrastructure … [namely] 1. Education objectives based on socioeconomic themes. If the relationship between these two elements is difficult to explain, then it most likely does not exist. There are two ways to ensure a clear connection between socioeconomic themes and education objectives. First, the process of formulating the strategy should involve dialogue with relevant stakeholders (e.g., the business community, labor departments, national human capital development bodies, and local groups). Second, the education targets should be measurable and based on higher-level socioeconomic indicators; that is, there must be a cause-and-effect relation between education objectives and socioeconomic themes. 2. Ambitious long-term view with realistic milestones. Education- sector strategies typically cover 10- to 15-year horizons. Precisely because of their far-reaching impacts, their goals should be ambitious, aiming to take the socioeconomic status of a country from one level to another. However, in order for the strategy to be effective, education strategists should avoid the temptation to solve all the issues in one quick fix. Rather, they must set a reasonable number of priorities and focus on addressing them. 3. Transparent assessment of the situation. Education strategists should not shy away from seeing the situation as it is, with all the weaknesses it may reveal, rather than what they would like it to be. An objective assessment of the situation should reveal the obstacles to goals and gaps in the current system and form the basis for addressing them. If an issue is not acknowledged, then it will not be addressed. 4. Consensus. To be effective, the strategy should be capable of garnering broad support. The different stakeholders need to believe in its feasibility, objectives, and urgency. Transparent and open communication, as well as an inclusive process, are key to achieving this buy-in (8).

26. The CR socioeconomic-process model (Maroun et al. 2008, 8):

Under this model, the pre-university schooling system in Singapore allows:

•	Broad Education Landscape: Students are given a lot of leeway to choose what they want to do, especially at the secondary level, where students can join express or normal secondary programs as well as the integrated program. At the pre-university level, they have a choice between polytechnics or junior colleges.
•	Flexibility in Education Pathways: To allow a more diverse range of student achievements and talents to be recognized, MOE gave selected schools more flexibility in their student admissions. In 2004, MOE introduced direct school admissions, which allowed schools offering the integrated program full discretion on admissions and was extended to autonomous schools and independent schools.
•	Greater Customization: Customization of curriculum is possible, especially at the secondary level, where students get to choose between normal academic and normal technical curricula. Flexibility in choosing the mother language that best suits children has been given as an option to students and parents.

New Examinations: To match the changes in curriculum and teaching methods, there is a need to evolve assessment methods and review and update the content of examinations. The Singapore Examinations & Assessment Board (SEAB) was established in April 2004 as a new statutory board under MOE; it may launch more international examinations. (Sources: Singapore Ministry of Education [www.moe.gov.sg]; Booz & Company Ideation Center analysis) (18)

27. Compare the policy of Singapore as concerns the acceptance of foreign degrees in the city state to the typical European procedure. Singapore's Ministry of Education (Singapore, Ministry of Education, 2011) leaves such assessment to the employer:

The Ministry of Education does not have a list of accredited overseas universities. There is also no central authority in Singapore that assesses or grants recognition for degrees obtained from overseas universities. The reason is that the employer should be the one deciding whether a degree-holder has the qualities desired for the job and the qualification most relevant to his needs. The employer is in the best position to decide how much value he will assign to a person's qualification. (n.p.)

In Romania, by contrast (and despite it signing The [Lisbon] Convention on the Recognition of Qualifications concerning Higher Education in the European Region (1997), this procedure is still long-winded and cumbersome (see Romania: Centrul Naţional de Recunoaştere şi Echivalare a Diplomelor (MOE) (2008–2011).

28. Cf. Maroun et al. (2008). In addition to seeking the best students and faculty members internationally, the University's also engages in continuous improvement to produce a ‘Quality Curriculum,’ in link with industry, specifically:

The university puts significant effort into curriculum design, based on industry requirements and international best practices. The curriculum committee consults with Saudi companies and international universities such as Harvard University and the University of Illinois. These consultations are then analyzed internally and the results are supported by the necessary technological infrastructure. One of the distinguishing features of KFUPM's curriculum requirement is the learning of the English language. The university requires a one-year orientation in which students are obligated to study English and take a test that determines whether they can continue at the university. One example of the constant development of curriculum is the recent addition of a social skills program at the university. This program prepares students for job interviews by helping them build their resumes and enhance their presentation and communication skills in order to ‘sell’ themselves to recruiting companies. (27)