Environmental change and migration as adaptation in rural economies: evidence from Zambia’s rural–rural migration

ABSTRACT

Anchored on environmental change and migration theory, this article aims at gaining understanding of the extent to which gradual and long-term environmental factors contribute to human migration. Using long-term rainfall data and scoping opinion on environmental risk among respondents, the extent to which gradual and long-term environmental change is a factor in the least understood form of migration of rural–rural is investigated. Insofar as findings suggest, the environmental factor appears to be the main driver of rural–rural movements. However, we also find that the economic factor makes it difficult for some to leave when they want to while some choose to stay due to their traditional attachment to land. Given their strong cultural attachment, they are ready to face and experience additional or incremental exposure to shocks in this sort of ‘voluntary trap’. We conclude that while gradual and long-term environmental factors dominate other drivers in rural–rural migration, economic factors play a major but secondary role in influencing the migration process. Based on the lack of land tenure security, and given the climate change projections, we conclude that migration (which appears to be an immediate survivalist option in rural–rural movements) may prove to be maladaptive in the long term.

KEYWORDS:

• Environmental change
• environmental drivers
• migration
• remittances
• adaptation
• conflicts

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Commonwealth Scholarship Commission (United Kingdom) [ZMCS-2015-852].

Notes on contributors

Cuthbert Casey Makondo

Cuthbert Casey Makondo holds DPhil in Geograpahy & Environment. He has worked as an environmental specialist in a huge government project under the World Bank in Zambia focussing on addressing environmental liabilities from former mining activities. He is also a co-founder of an environmental consultancy firm specialising in environmental engineering solutions and sustainability planning that draws its clientele from the extractive industry within Zambia.

David S.G. Thomas

David S.G. Thomas is geomorphologist and physical geographer specialising in contemporary drylands and the Quaternary Period. Much of his research has been carried out in Africa, but he also conducts research in Arabia, Asia, India, North America and other dryland contexts. His research has often been multi- and interdisciplinary. On the one hand he has led interdisciplinary projects on desertification, land degradation, sustainable land use and climate change impacts; on the other he works on projects focussed on geomorphological processes, Late Quaternary environmental change, climate change science and environmental-climate interactions, with archaeologists, biologists, climate scientists and other physical geographers. He has authored or edited 10 books, including The Dictionary of Physical Geography (4th edition 2016), Arid Zone Geomorphology (3rd edition 2011), The World Atlas of Desertification (2nd edition 1998), Desertification: exploding the myth (1995) and The Kalahari Environment (1991) and over 200 peer-reviewed journal papers and contributions to edited volumes including IPCC assessment reports. In 2011 David was awarded the Geological Society of America Farouk El-Baz Award, for a body of work that has significantly enhanced desert science.