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Abstract
This research is based on Fletcher's [2012. “These Whites Never Come to Our Game, What do They Know about our Soccer? Soccer Fandom, Race and the Rainbow Nation in South Africa.” Doctoral diss., University of Edinburgh. United Kingdom] argument that researching sport is not, and should not be restricted to sport but should be seen as opening up wider avenues of enquiry into everyday life. Theoretically, this study combines a Foucauldian discourse and Neo-Gramscian approach, which views popular culture (including football) as a formative site for the play of power, where identities are negotiated and contested in people's everyday lives. Through ethnographic methods, particularly participant observation in purposively selected football stadia, this study qualitatively explores the contribution of Zimbabwe's most followed teams, Dynamos FC and Highlanders FC, in the performance and expression of social ethnic identities in Zimbabwe. Purposively selected songs and chants by football supporters in stadia were subjected to critical discourse analysis. Findings suggest that Highlanders/Dynamos FC matches are a representation of historical and contemporary ethnic conflicts, particularly between the Ndebele and Shona ethnic groups in Zimbabwe.
Acknowledgements
I thank Dr Lizelle Bischoff and Dr Marc Fletcher as well as two anonymous reviewers for constructive comments on earlier drafts of this article.
Notes
1. Zimbabwe is a former British colony. Cecil John Rhodes’ British South Africa Company colonized Zimbabwe in 1890 and the country became independent in April 1980.
2. Ethnicity and tribalism are often used interchangeably though there is a distinction between the two. Msindo (Citation2007, 269) has argued that ethnicity is that capacity in people to classify themselves as social ‘others’. Tribalism however, is the mobilization of ethnically conscious people to stimulate political enmity and disunity between ethnic ‘others’. I however, consciously use the terms interchangeably.
4. These groups came specifically during the Federation of Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe), Northern Rhodesia (Zambia) and Nyasaland (Malawi) from 1953 to 1963. Southern Rhodesia was the Federal capital.
5. The term ‘Coloured’ is often used to refer to children born out of intermarriages between Whites and Blacks.
6. The Fifth Brigade was a result of an agreement signed between the North Koreans and Zimbabwe's Prime Minister Robert Mugabe in October 1980 (Alexander, McGregor, and Ranger Citation2000, 191). At the brigade's passing out parade in 1982; Mugabe handed over the brigade a flag emblazoned with the name Gukurahundi (Alexander, McGregor, and Ranger Citation2000, 191).
7. This research forms part of my doctoral thesis currently in progress at the Centre for Communication Media and Society (CCMS) at the University of Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa. The thesis explores controversies and interdependencies surrounding the ‘beautiful game’ in modern Zimbabwe as it relates to discourses of power, identity and development.
8. The literal meaning of the word ethnography is ‘writing culture’ (Hesse-Biber and Leavy Citation2002, 230). The term ethnography is used to refer ‘both to a particular form of research and its eventual written product’ (Davies Citation2008, 4). Bryman (Citation2012, 424) states that participant observation and ethnography can be used interchangeably although ethnography is much more accepted because ‘participant observation’ implies just observation, in spite the fact that participant observers do more than simply observe but also use interviews to collect data (Bryman Citation2012, 424). In this study, I therefore consciously use the terms ‘ethnography’ and ‘participant observation’ interchangeably, although ethnography is the preferred term since it refers to both the method of data collection and the product of the research.
9. Zorai butter dance was introduced by Zimbabwean Sungura musician Alick Macheso. It became Dynamos FC as well as the Warriors team's ‘official’ goal celebration style from 2009 until early 2014. However, from February 2014, following the much publicized arrest, trial and conviction of ‘prophet’ Robert Martin Gumbura, founder of the Independent End Time Message church, on rape charges, Dynamos FC supporters now claim that that they ‘gumbura’ (rape) other teams. ‘Gumbura dance’ has become the Dynamos FC players’ and fans’ ‘official’ celebration style.
10. Soweto stand is located at the Western side of Babourfields stadium. The stand houses predominantly Highlanders fans who believe that they are ‘more Highlanders’ than other fans. There is an unwritten rule at Soweto that only Highlanders fans are allowed access when the team is playing (Mangezvo Citation2005).
11. Bosso is a nick name for Highlanders FC.
12. The name had tribal connotation and it implied that the team was an ‘Ndebele only’ institution. Ndumiso Gumede told me that Joshua Nkomo renamed the club Highlanders in 1975 to de-tribalize the team and give it a national flavour.
13. Ndumiso Gumede joined Highlanders football club in 1975, he has also served as its chairman and on 1 June 2014 he was appointed as the Chief Executive Officer of the club.
14. Bulawayo has a documented history of labour protests specifically around 1945 and 1948 (Ranger Citation2010).
15. The Moto magazine contends that players who formed Dynamos FC had been victims of racial segregation in the Southern Rhodesian league. The magazine noted that the professional soccer world in Southern Rhodesia had been hit a death blow when Salisbury City football club had been disbanded. Therefore, Salisbury United, the remaining team (which collapsed later), announced that it was going ‘white’, with the consequence that African players were laid off (Moto, May 1963, 85). African players, who include Obadiah Sarupinda, Freddy Mkwesha and Benard Marriot among others subsequently came together and formed Dynamos FC.
16. Freddy Mkwesha and Bernard Marriot are some of the surviving Dynamos football club founders.
17. Today Dynamos FC is also popularly known as ‘DeMbare’. Charles Mabika, one of Zimbabwe's radio and television football commentators, came up with the name in 1991.
18. ZAPU military wing Zimbabwe People's Revolutionary Army (ZIPRA) received military training in Russia (Alexander, McGregor, and Ranger Citation2000).
19. George Shaya joined Dynamos in 1964, a year after its formation. Shaya is regarded as the most successful player to emerge in Southern Rhodesia, having been crowned Soccer Star of the Year five times during his playing days. In 2007, he was the chairman of Dynamos FC.
20. Gandanga is a Shona word which was ascribed to African nationalist freedom fighters who fought Ian Smith's White minority government during the second liberation struggle/second Chimurenga. Magandanga refused to be tamed by colonial rule and thus rebelled against the system.
21. People with such names claim to be ‘authentic’ or ‘original’ Ndebele speakers.
22. Pseudonym
23. Highlanders FC have failed to beat Dynamos FC since 2007.
24. These are the five dialects of Shona. There is a documented history of dialectical/ethnic tensions between them that have roots in the liberation war (Tekere Citation2007; Ndlovu-Gatsheni Citation2009).
25. On 27 October 2013 after Highlanders’ 0–1 loss to Dynamos, Highlanders fans at Soweto shouted ‘Val’ gedhiiShonalingapumi (close the gates so that no Shona can get out)’. Some Highlanders hooligans started beating those who were putting on the blue and white regalia (supposedly Dynamos fans). Police had to intervene with canisters, dogs, tear gas and horses.
