An investigation of authentic leadership and teachers’ organizational citizenship behavior in secondary schools of Pakistan

Abstract

This study is based on the premise that in order to create better schools, good leadership must be developed. This study believes that Authentic Leadership (AL), as propounded by various authors in the past 15 years, provides a useful framework for effective school leadership. Furthermore, Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) of teachers in schools could be improved if provided AL. The purpose of the study was to explore the correlation of AL and Organizational Citizenship behavior in the context of educational setting such as secondary schools. Thirty-two schools were randomly selected. Two different questionnaires for two research variables were adapted to collect data from 500 teachers and 32 heads. Correlation between AL and OCB of teachers was calculated by applying Pearson coefficient. To measure the effect of the AL on the OCB of teachers Linear Regression was used while for finding out differences between responses on self-reported version and rater version of scale, t test was used. Mixed relationship found between two variables indicates that these constructs are important for teaching and learning in the context of secondary schools, with special reference to teacher satisfaction. This study is important as it combines previous literature from business management and education fields exploring two main constructs AL and OCB to inform education policy and practice in the area of school leadership. Secondly it informs education policy and practice to use these two constructs for leadership development and school improvement through greater teacher satisfaction and motivation.

Keywords:

• school leadership
• authentic leadership
• organizational citizenship behavior
• school improvement
• teacher satisfaction

Public Interest Statement

Authentic Leadership is deemed necessary for effective schools to exist and for follower cooperation in making this happen via Organizational citizenship behavior. This perspective article investigates correlation of authentic leadership and Organizational citizenship behavior within secondary schools of Pakistan. Results reported a correlation between Authentic Leadership and Organizational citizenship behavior in school setting while a mixed relationship between the factors of both constructs. It has been revealed that these constructs are important for teaching and learning, with special reference to teacher satisfaction irrespective of educational level. Interestingly, Heads perceived themselves as authentic leaders but their teachers didn’t think so or to a less extent? This study is important as it combines previous literature from business management and education fields exploring two main constructs AL and OCB to inform education policy and practice in the area of school leadership. Secondly it informs education policy and practice to use these two constructs for leadership development and school improvement through greater teacher satisfaction and motivation.

1. Introduction

Schools are social organizations that have a deeper and important role to play in a society. They do not only develop academic and technical skills in learners, but also develop intellectual skills and citizenship. It may be emphasized here that teachers’ commitment is very necessary to sustain effective schools.

School leadership is one of the most important factors for school improvement. This paper is based on the contention that Authentic leadership can promote teachers’ satisfaction to improve teaching and learning in schools. It argues that AL construct offers a useful framework for school leadership and therefore can be an effective model for school improvement.

According to Luthans and Avolio (2009) the practice of AL draws on two things, i.e. “a highly developed organizational context and positive psychological capacities”. It results in an improvement in the behavior of associates and leaders in terms of self-regulation and self-awareness, encouraging “optimistic self-development.” Authentic leaders through optimism, create conditions developing followers with confidence, resilience and aspirations. These followers encourage the same positive characteristics in others (Gardner, Avolio, Luthans, May, & Walumbwa, 2005).

According to Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson (2008, p. 94) Authentic Leadership is a behavior that both results from and promotes “positive ethical climate” and “positive psychological capacities”. This develops self-awareness in leaders and the followers, “an internalized moral perspective, balanced processing of information and relational transparency”. There are differences in how AL is viewed, however, there is agreement on what factors constitute it. These are: “self-awareness, relational transparency, balanced processing and an internalized moral perspective” (Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009). Self-awareness in leaders is the recognition of their own strengths and weaknesses, what motivates them, and understanding their own nature while they deal and interact with others. This includes understanding how their own leadership is opposed and the way they influence other people (Kernis, 2003). Self-awareness also means how they understand the world, and how this understanding affects their self-perception. By Rational Transparency, is meant revealing one’s true self to others. This includes overtly sharing information and expression of beliefs and emotions. Authentic Leaders are transparent in these and are trusted for this quality (Kernis, 2003).

The most important four components of AL which have been reported in related literature are as under:

(1)	Self-awareness Self-awareness refers to the extent leaders recognize their own strengths, drives, flaws, and the comprehensive nature of the self as well as growing one understands of the self through dealings with others. This also includes an understanding of how others appraise their leadership and how they are able to influence others (Kernis, 2003). Furthermore, self-awareness refers to being aware of how one makes meaning of the world, and how this process ultimately influences one’s self perception. Self-awareness has also been highlighted in the literature related to effective school leadership.
(2)	Relational transparency Relational/interactive transparency refers to revealing one’s true self to others, including overtly sharing information and expressions of one’s genuine beliefs and feelings. In contrast to leaders who present a false or distorted self, authentic leaders endorse through their transparency trust among others (Kernis, 2003).
(3)	Balanced processing It refers to leader behavior characterized by objectively considering all significant data before one makes a decision, including behavior that is less liable to misrepresentation, negation, and overstatement (Walumbwa, Luthans, Avey, & Oke, 2011; Walumbwa et al., 2008). This also includes being open to views that confront their deeply held convictions (Gardner et al., 2005).
(4)	Internalized moral perspective Internalized/co-opted moral perspective refers to leader behavior which is directed by inner moral principles and values opposed to behaviors based on outside pressure from peers, society, and other organizational demands, resulting in “expressed decision-making and behavior that is consistent with these internalized values” (Walumbwa et al., 2008, p. 96). Although these components have usually been researched as independent constructs, there is support that some conceptual resemblances are shared among the four and that each behavior centers on one facet of authenticity (Kernis, Goldman, Tesser, Wood, & Stapel, 2005). In addition to conceptual support, also empirical work indicates that the above mentioned components can be united to form a common factor in clarifying the construct of authentic leadership (e.g. Walumbwa et al., 2008, 2011).

Authentic leadership is well researched area for both educators and business leadership. However, its relationship with Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) has not been explored widely. OCB has come to be known as an important indicator of workers’ performances which go further than formally assigned tasks to have a positive impact at the organizational level to maintain service quality and long-term sustainability and effectiveness (MacKenzie, Podsakoff, & Fetter, 1993; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman, & Fetter,1990; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 2000). It has the prospective to develop organizational efficiency, through increased output, further effective use of insufficient resources, and augmented organizational flexibility (Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1997). A wide range of dimensions of OCB has been remained under debate and discussion. Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Paine, and Bacharach (2000) listed 30 different categories of OCB having certain theoretical overlaps. Two factor model of OCB presented and used by Smith, Organ, and Near (1983) was most popular among the circles. Two factors are namely, Altruism and Generalized compliance.

Altruisms comprises behaviors which are intentionally and directly geared to serve and help individuals in direct face to face circumstances, that is, assisting someone with a task and/or a heavy workload, orienting new people (Smith et al., 1983). Later in 1988, Organ defined Altruism as unpaid behaviors aspiring to help others in an organizationally pertinent problem or task.

Second most common factor of OCB is “Generalized compliance” which means a further impersonal type of conscientiousness which does not give immediate help to a specific person/s, but is about making others feel obliged to comply within the system, for example, compelling them not to waste time, be punctual etc. (Smith et al., 1983). This is a very significant phenomenon for educational organizations as universities, colleges and schools need a strong commitment from the major stakeholders such as teachers and students to achieve their educational goals. This study subscribes to a more comprehensive interpretation of educational goals that does not limit them to academic achievement only.

A recent review of empirical research on OCB showed that a majority of studies found significant support for the link between leadership behaviors and OCB (Organ, Podsakoff, & MacKenzie, 2006). The rationale for this is that employees are likely to enact what a leader emphasizes by his or her behavior (Schneider, Ehrhart, Mayer, Saltz, & Niles-Jolly, 2005). Authentic leaders promote a fair and open work environment, which makes employees more willing to engage in behaviors that benefit the organization even when it is not specified in their job description (Avolio & Gardner, 2005; Brown, Treviño, & Harrison, 2005). Specifically, authentic leaders encourage citizenship behavior by making employees more aware of the importance of helping others and showing the value and safety of openly sharing information (Walumbwa, Wang, Wang, Schaubroeck, & Avolio, 2010). Furthermore, by encouraging open communication, engaging employees, and sharing perceptions and feelings, authentic leaders are likely to build a realistic social relationship with their employees (Avolio, Gardner, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004).

Findings of previous research support the link between authentic leadership and OCB.

For example, Brown et al. (2005) and Mayer, Kuenzi, Greenbaum, Bardes, and Salvador (2009), found support for the positive relation between ethical leadership, a major component of authentic leadership, and OCB.

2. Objective of the study

The main purpose of this study was to explore the correlation of Authentic Leadership and Organizational Citizenship Behavior in the context of educational setting such as secondary schools.

3. Key hypothesis

The study was based on the following hypothesis

(1)	Authentic Leadership has not significant positive impact on Organizational Citizenship Behavior of teachers.
(2)	There is no significant difference between Secondary School Heads’ self-reported authenticity and Teachers’ rater authenticity of their Heads.
(3)	There is no significant relationship between Authentic Leadership and Teachers’ Organizational Citizenship Behavior in secondary school setting.

4. Methodology

This study was based on causal comparative premise, which means, finding the effect of independent variables on the dependent variables. Independent variable of the research was authentic leadership while dependent variable was organizational citizenship behavior of teachers. The study was quantitative in nature. All Public Secondary schools in Lahore constituted the population of the study. Sixteen boys’ secondary school and sixteen girls’ secondary school were randomly selected from a list got by District education office. From sample schools, Two hundred and fifty teachers from each cohort were again randomly selected. Rater version of AL Questionnaire and OCB Questionnaire were distributed among 500 teachers. Thirty-two heads of schools were approached to get their responses on self-reported version of AL Questionnaire. Response rate of teachers was 97% and of Heads was 100%. Regarding demographics, 242 were male and 243 were female teachers. Academic qualification of most of the participants 260 (54%) was MA/MSc, while 225 (46%) teachers had BA/BSc qualification. The professional qualification of the 292 (58%) participant teachers was BEd, 110(23%) teachers was MEd, 14 (2.8%) teachers was MS.Ed while 79(15.8%) teachers did not mention their qualification.

5. Research instruments

Two following standardized survey questionnaires were adapted and used for both variables of the study.

5.1. Authentic leadership questionnaire (ALQ)

This 16-item questionnaire was originally developed by Walumbwa, Avolio, Gardner, Wernsing, and Peterson in 2008. It has four subscales:

(a)	Relational transparency
(b)	Internalized moral perspective
(c)	Balanced processing
(d)	Self-awareness

The questionnaire has two versions. Heads completed the self-report form version and teachers completed raters’ version. Participants were asked to rate on five-point Likert scale.

5.2. Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)

The instrument used to measure the organizational citizenship behavior was the 16-item questionnaire of OCB developed by Smith et al. (1983) and it had two subscales:

(a)	Altruism items and
(b)	Generalized compliance

All items were rated on a seven-point Likert-type scale.

Both adopted instruments ALQ and OCBQ were translated into Urdu language. A pilot study was conducted to work out the reliability of the both translated instrument and a review of the both instruments and their Urdu versions with four experts in the area was also conducted to validate the instruments.

The Cronbach’s Alpha of the scale AL factors, Relational transparency was 0.84, Internalized moral perspective (Moral) 0.71, Balanced Processing 0.79 and Self Awareness was 0.90 and overall Cronbach’s Alpha of the instrument was 0.86. The Cronbach’s Alpha of the scale OCB factors altruism was 0.87 and for generalized compliance was 0.90 and overall Cronbach’s Alpha of the instrument was 0.81. Before data collection, all ethical concerns were addressed. Participants were briefed about the Research objectives and made it sure that information provided by them will not be disclosed.

5.3. Data analysis

The participants were approached directly by the researchers, 32 school heads of randomly selected schools were contacted by the phone and visit the schools. Following data analysis techniques were used. Correlation between AL and OCB of teachers was calculated by applying Pearson coefficient. To measure the effect of the AL (independent variable) on the OCB of teachers (dependent variable), Linear Regression was applied while for finding out differences between responses on self-reported version and rater version of scale, t test was used.

6. Results

In this study, t-tests were used to see the difference between Heads’ self-reported authenticity and teachers’ perceptions of their heads’ authenticity.Research hypothesis were tested on 0.05 significance level. A significant difference between self-reported and rater version of AL scale was found. Only two Components Relational Transparency and Balanced Processing were found not to be significant.

Table 1 shows the mean score of teachers (M = 60.55, SD = 12.10) is less than the mean score of heads self-reported (M = 65.03, SD = 5.63). The value of t = −2.55 is significant at α = 0.05. Similarly, a significant difference between teachers’ perceptions of their heads’ authenticity on moral perspective (M = 15.10, SD = 3.22) and Heads’ self-reported authenticity on internalized moral perspective (M = 17.01, SD = 1.85) was found. The value of t = −3.11 was significant at α = 0.05.

Table 1. T-test analysis for self-reported and rater version of Authentic Leadership scale

Authentic leadership and its components	Teachers (485)		Heads (32)		t-value	p-value
	Mean	SD	Mean	SD
Relational transparency	18.20	4.41	19.98	2.19	−1.57	0.110
Internalized moral perspective	15.10	3.22	17.01	1.85	−3.11	0.002*
Balanced processing	11.09	3.01	12.02	1.99	−1.50	0.130
Self-awareness	15.03	3.67	16.50	2.01	−2.94	0.003*
Authenticity	60.55	12.10	65.03	5.63	−2.55	0.008*

* p < 0.05.

The result for third component of authentic leadership, teachers’ perceptions of their heads’ authenticity on self-awareness (M = 15.03, SD = 3.67) and heads’ self-reported authenticity on self-awareness (M = 16.50, SD = 2.01) was also in line. The value of t = −2.94 was significant at α = 0.05.

Contrary to above results, No significant difference between Heads’ self-reported authenticity on Balanced Processing (M = 11.09, SD = 3.01) and teachers’ perceptions of their heads’ authenticity on Stable Processing (M = 12.02, SD = 1.99) was reported.

6.1. Correlation of AL of secondary school heads and the teachers’ OCB

The results showed a mixed relationship between the factors of both constructs. Overall, a relationship was found between AL and OCB. This indicates that these constructs are important for teaching and learning in the context of secondary schools, with special reference to teacher satisfaction.

Pearson coefficient was calculated to find out correlations of research variables. Table 2 shows the correlations between AL and OCB of teachers. The value of the coefficient (r = 0.077) describes that there was no relationship between the AL and OCB. Relational Transparency had correlation with OCB (r = 0.090*). Internalized moral perspective had correlation with Altruism (r = 0.081*). Balanced Processing had correlation with Altruism (r = 0.081*). Self-Awareness had no correlation with Altruism, Generalized Compliance and OCB. AL had no correlation with OCB but AL correlated with Altruism (r = 0.082*).

Table 2. Correlations between authentic leadership and organizational citizenship behavior

Authentic leadership and its components	Altruism	Generalized compliance	OCB
Relational transparency	0.055	0.065	0.090*
Internalized moral perspective	0.081*	0.020	0.060
Balanced processing	0.083*	0.023	0.059
Self-awareness	0.051	0.022	0.048
Authentic leadership	0.082*	0.043	0.077

* p < 0.05.

Table 3 reports no effect of Relational Transparency, Internalized moral perspective, Balanced Processing, and Self Awareness on OCB. The value of p was not significant at α = 0.05.

Table 3. Regression analysis of research variables

	Organizational citizenship behavior
Authentic Leadership Factors	B	β	t-value	p-value
Relational Transparency	0.207	0.096	1.605	0.107
Internalized moral perspective	0.039	0.013	0.254	0.796
Balanced Processing	0.008	0.002	0.048	0.959
Self Awareness	−0.063	−0.025	−0.459	0.644

* p < 0.05

** p < 0.001.

7. Discussion

The most significant contribution of the present research is simultaneous measuring of AL by the secondary school heads themselves and by their teachers. Our findings supported the views of Shamir and Eilam (2005), Fields (2007) and Yammarino, Dionne, Schriesman, and Dansereau(2008) about study of Authentic Leadership. They believed that authentic leadership has to be studied by means of various sources concurrently. They provided reason as the data outcomes obtained from only one perspective are not equivalent due to subjective perceptions which may be influenced by various factors. Thus, in search of “truly” authentic leadership or not, data were collected from both cohorts. Is it secondary school heads in which authenticity resides, how it is perceived by their teachers, or both? Are both heads and teachers perceive the same?

The present research study indicate that the overall self-perceptions of the school heads are significantly higher than the perceptions reported by teachers. It means heads perceive themselves as authentic leaders but their teachers don’t think so or to a less extent? Heads’ and teachers’ perceptions for two components Relational Transparency and Balanced Processing were found to be same while their perceptions for moral perspective and self-awareness were not same as heads had higher perceptions on both scales than secondary school teachers. The disparity in the perceptions of heads and teachers may be due to disengagement, anxiety, disbelief, suspicion or disappointment pointed out by the lower statistical means of the teachers.

The present study focuses on the correlation of Authentic Leadership (AL) of heads and Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) of secondary school teachers. The results showed a mixed relationship between the factors of both constructs. Overall, a correlation was found between Authentic Leadership and OCB. These results are in line with the results of Dos and Ozden’s (2016) correlational analysis which indicated a positive and linear relationship between authentic leadership and organizational citizenship behavior in kindergartens schools. Although both studies have different contexts but reported the same correlation. It has been revealed that these constructs are important for teaching and learning, with special reference to teacher satisfaction irrespective of educational level. These results are also supported by Walumbwa et al. (2010), who reported a positive relationship between authentic leadership and the employees’ organizational citizenship behaviors. These studies revealed a positive association between the two variables in business and education sector, both at an individual and group level. Earlier Deci and Ryan (2000) also opined that authentic leaders have an impact on group performance as they provide support for employees’ self-determination which is considered as an indicator of their performance. It has been believed that more perceived authentic leaders play a persuasive role in facilitating employees and teachers helping behavior by making them more aware of the importance of civic sense. Saif, Khatak, and Khan (2016) added that employees can perform in any culture that only suits to their survival. But if employees are given the confidence as well as their individual need is assisted by the leaders than the outcome will be highly motivated workforce. This can be done by Authentic Leadership.

Contrary to the above findings, George (2015) found a moderate to weak relationship exists between the dimensions of authentic leadership (self-awareness, moral perspective, balanced processing, and relational transparency) and the dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior (altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, and civic virtue). He further reported that Organizational citizenship behavior of the employees within provincial government department in the Western Cape was not largely influenced by their leader’s authentic leadership style. He opined that other factors such as work ethic, organizational commitment, work motivation or personality may have greater influence on organizational citizenship behavior than authentic leadership. This may be due to difference in scale used, context of study and other uncontrolled factors. Further, the present study reports an overall correlation between both variables while George found correlation between different dimensions of AL and OCB.

Educational leaders are extremely significant for defining and maintenance of good practices in an educational institution. These practices should be transparent, consistent and show administrative competence. Heads must revise their approach in carrying out their experiences on a day to day basis if their ratings for themselves are higher than their teachers’ ratings. The instruments used for the present study tap only the employees’ perceptions. It is to be noted that perceptions can be misled and misleading too, but are necessary for understanding and judging the situation from the employees’ perspective, in the end helping leaders to act rightly.

8. Implications

Following are its implications for programs for teacher education and continuous professional development for school leaders:

(1)	Regarding ALQ, there is a difference between how heads and teachers perceive authenticity. This difference can be dealt with by using some strategies. These include professional training to improve social and communication skills of principals, their administrative competence and making structures and practices more democratic and inclusive to encourage a sense of belongingness. Leadership training can help develop intellectual and conflict resolution skills. AL construct given in ALQ to gauge employees’ perceptions. They inform policy makers and school leaders about factors within the construct that may improve policy and practice, taking necessary action.
(2)	OCB Implications in a school setting: The main focus of the construct is teachers’ perceptions and attitudes. These perceptions and attitudes are impacted by management and leadership practices and structures. The school leaders can use the instruments of the study to bring employee satisfaction and citizenship behavior. This also helps control situations where teachers show low OCB.
(3)	OCB ratings influence teacher training in the following ways: (a) Encourages positive attitudes and behavior in teachers (b) Develops an attitude of professionalism and commitment

It is clear that in the classroom, policies are implemented and practices are established by the teacher. The principal affects teachers’ behavioral patterns about teachers’ response and behavior. Altruism shows how helpful teachers are to their colleagues, their principal, and to the progress of their institution. One of the most common problems resulting from an authoritarian school set up in Pakistan, is teacher absenteeism. This pattern can be improved with a greater OCB.

The teachers’ response was positive to all the components of authentic leadership, i.e. interactive transparency, co-opted moral perspective, stable processing and self-awareness. A school principal has to deal with several challenges every day. If heads have stronger relational transparency patterns of behavior, they are able to have meaningful relationships with their school teachers and other staff members.

9. Recommendations

The following recommendations are based on the findings of the study:

•	Value based Teacher training programs for school teachers to inculcate professional and personal skills focusing on behavior and attitudes will necessarily develop the more effective teaching learning process.
•	Leadership development programs for heads should be based on the construct, keeping in mind the important areas of rational transparency, internalized moral perspective, balanced processing and self-awareness.
•	School leadership and policy makers should use different ways to find out about trends in teachers’ perceptions, and overall attitudes and culture, so that the right vision and strategies can be adopted. This will improve the overall school practices.
•	For future research, qualitative and quantitative research paradigms should be combined to study leadership in school settings. All education sectors should encourage research offering new theory and expanding current theory of education.
•	Future research should focus on informing policy-makers and school practitioners to improve school practices and structures in Pakistan.
•	More research in this area is necessary to introduce an indigenous model of school leadership.

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Acknowledgement

It was initially a thesis project, adopted and expanded to conduct this study.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Uzma Quraishi

Uzma Quraishi has done her postdoctorate in Gender Equity in Higher Education in Pakistan from The University of Cambridge, U.K, doctorate in Educational Management and Planning: from The University of Birmingham, United Kingdom, Master of Education (Mass Media & Education), from The University of Manchester, United Kingdom. Her area of Specialization is Educational Management and Leadership. Uzma Qureshi has an extensive administrative and teaching experience at University level in Pakistan and training in the area from United Kingdom, especially in Higher Education: Research and professional development activities and quality education. Particular strengths include planning and development, project appraisal and evaluation, and analytical policy review and development. She has coordinated and developed a wide range of professional/staff development programs for national and international organizations. Leadership has been remained her focused area. Present research is also an extension of her work.