Institutional constraints affecting secondary school student performance: A case study of rural communities in Zimbabwe

Abstract

The study analyses the institutional constraints affecting child performance in secondary schools within rural communities in Zimbabwe. A qualitative approach employing purposive sampling of participants was incorporated in the study. Eight focus group discussions (FDGs), 16 in-depth interviews and four key informant interviews were conducted in eight rural secondary schools located in Seke and Shamva districts. The general systems theory was embraced as the theoretical framework in this study. The principle of theoretical saturation was applied in both the focus group discussion sessions and interviews where they ran up until a clear pattern emerged and subsequent groups produced no new information. Data were analysed using thematic analysis techniques which systematically coded data to discover prevailing trends. The major highlight of the results is that rural learners have to grapple with a lot of challenges in trying to access education. Inadequate resources, long distances to school and demotivated teachers constitute the main highlights of the findings. The study established that there is a need to explore more issues affecting the realisation of equitable and inclusive education systems specifically for learners in rural communities. This article also posits that addressing institutional constraints that are affecting child performance in rural secondary schools is not cast in stone. Thus, this requires a holistic approach through engagement of all stakeholders involved in the drive towards quality education and leaving no one behind.

Keywords:

• child performance
• institutional constraints
• rural learners
• sustainable development

Public Interest Statement

This article examines the institutional constraints faced in an attempt to promote access to quality education for rural learners in Zimbabwe. The study is based on a qualitative enquiry done in Seke and Shamva districts where the participants drawn from teachers, parents, guardians and education officers were targeted. Using the general systems theory, the study reveals that learners in rural communities have to overcome a lot of challenges to get basic education. The resources are limited, the teachers are demotivated, the learners walk long distances to school and access to internet is minimal. The study foregrounds that there is a need to implement policies that are sensitive to poor rural communities in order for inclusive and equitable education to be realised. It is these policies that can transform the education opportunities for the disadvantaged learners who lack meaningful educational resources.

1. Introduction and background

Various studies have been conducted in relation to the institutional constraints affecting child performance in rural secondary schoolsfor example,; Munaka (2016), Mudzengerere (2018), Shava (2020), and Nhlumayo (2020). Findings show that learners in rural secondary schools continue to face some institutional constraints in their education system. Despite the government’s efforts in coming up with policies and strategies towards addressing educational constraints for learners, there has been no significant changes towards the learning environment in rural communities. Public schools in rural areas also charge levies to the learners which impedes access to education for underprivileged learners. Internationally, some rural schools have been more disadvantaged than urban schools. However, the challenges differ from country to country. In European countries, challenges emanate from the curriculum development as well as the small numbers of students in the rural schools (Kimonen & Nevalainen, 1996). In Africa , generally, the constraints faced by rural students range from poverty, ethnic and economic conflicts, low level of technological advancement, limited infrastructure, poor access to resources and lack of information (Sintema, 2020). By comparing the context of rural secondary school education in Zimbabwe with other regional and international nations, it has been observed that there are existing commonalities pointing out the existence of institutional constraints, which are crucial in formulating sustainable educational changes for learners (Beckman & Gallo, 2015). According to Sintema (2020), rural learners face a number of challenges that have been exacerbated by, for example, the Covid-19 epidemic of which the state of preparedness for rural schools has always been very poor. A similar study examines the potential impact of Covid-19 on education system including those in schools within rural communities. Munaka (2016), complemented other research conducted by reflecting that learners in rural communities are not only disadvantaged in terms of learning institutions but they also do not have adequate learning materials in their communities, for example, they lack access to libraries. According to Sintema (2020), the outbreak of Corona Virus in 2020 ravaged most parts of China, the United States of America, Italy, Spain and other parts of Europe and Africa. This meant that secondary school learners in both rural and urban communities ended Term 1 of the academic year 2020 without sitting for their end-of-term exams due to poor preparations for such an epidemic. Some research conducted in Zimbabwe revealed that students in schools within rural communities continue to operate under very challenging conditions as reflected in the 2019−2020 Primary and Secondary Education Statistics Report (Mathema, 2020). Maunganidze (2019) also concurred with other researchers that over the years, the quality of education has been very poor especially in rural communities as schools continue to face a lot of institutional constraints.

Concerns raised about the institutional constraints affecting education came at a time when there is a growing recognition across the globe, regionally and nationally on the potential role of educating children. In line with the foregoing observation, various goals and policies aimed at transforming the quality of education have been developed, while some are still being developed (Shava, 2020 & Palmer, 2015). The issue of addressing institutional constraints within the education sector has been very topical at global, regional or national forums. In these forums, it has been noted that there are barriers preventing learners from gaining equal access to education beyond financial challenges (Munaka, 2016). Some declarations have been made in these forums such as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of September 2000 and the Education for Sustainable Development Agenda 2030 Global Goals adopted in 2015 (Shava, 2020). Regionally, there is the Southern African Development Community (SADC) Protocol on Education and Training that guides the SADC members on Education and Skills Development Programme (Mashininga, 2021). The author posits that the protocol facilitates and coordinates the harmonisation and implementation of regional policies and programmes to ensure that there is access to relevant and quality education and training in the SADC region but this has been with little success.

In Zimbabwe, the average pass rate among rural secondary schools is far below the national standard with many achieving even a zero percent pass rate attributed to institutional constraints (Hapanyengwi et al., 2018; Nyoni et al., 2017). These constraints comprise type of school leadership, psychological challenges, lack of motivation, lack of extracurricular activities and teacher–pupil ratio (Nyoni et al., 2017). Interventions are needed to address the existing institutional constraints in secondary schools within rural communities. There is a need to strengthen the voice of parents and communities by formalising some regulations and policies.

This paper recognises the veracity of various researchers such as, Munaka (2016) & Shava (2020) recommendations that there is need for more research and assessment of institutional constraints affecting child performance in secondary schools within rural communities. There is a dearth of the literature with regard to institutional constraints affecting child performances such as child psychological challenges, issues of teacher patriotism as a self-motivation concept and non-availability of contingent plans to mitigate on non-availability of extra curricula activities (Mashininga, 2021: Masud et al., 2019; Munaka, 2016).

Whilst education is one of the most effective instruments a nation has at its disposal for promoting sustainable, social and economic development (Shava, 2020), access and quality of education varies significantly across contexts. The 2019−2020 Primary and Secondary Education Statistics Report in Zimbabwe highlighted that parents in rural communities have been discontented with institutional constraints affecting their children’s performance in secondary schools (Mathema, 2020). The report highlighted that there is more that still needs to be done as many children in rural communities continue to encounter institutional constraints. Furthermore, School Boards have been putting pressure on District Education Boards to come up with a lasting solution to ensure that learners perform better regardless of their geographical locations, physical challenges or any other form of institutional constraints. In line with this drive, the government of Zimbabwe has made various declarations towards improving the quality of education, for example, Sustainable Development Goal number 4, Millennium Development Goals (Mangena & Chitando, 2011), but with little success. The Education for Sustainable Development through goal number 4 seeks to address issues of educational challenges but so far, the objective has not been achieved (Mudzengerere, 2018). There is a need for an inclusive and equitable quality education that promotes lifelong learning opportunities for all children despite their terrestrial location (i.e., either rural or urban communities) by addressing institutional constraints. Little or no effort has been made in Zimbabwe to look into institutional constraints through Sustainable Development Goals, Millennium Development Goals and Educational Policies among others, but previous research conducted reflect that there are some existing institutional constraints affecting child performance in secondary within rural communities (Munaka, 2016).

Despite the fact that policies, strategies and programmes have been formulated to address institutional constraints affecting child performance in secondary schools within rural communities, there is a need to explore the effectiveness of such strategies and programmes. This would ensure that there is inclusive, quality and equitable education for all learners. The study seeks to establish how equitable, inclusive and quality education which is the golden thread that runs through sustainable development address institutional constraints which are affecting children’s performance in secondary schools within rural communities. The study acts as a reference point on studies related to educational institutions affecting child performance in secondary schools within rural communities. Students interested in pursuing this area of study will also benefit. This study also builds and strengthens the university’s collaboration with the government and drives across disciplinary collaborations/partnerships with various stakeholders leading to new funding streams.

2. Literature review on the institutional constraints affecting quality of education in rural communities

This section gives an overview of the literature findings of the studies carried out exploring the various hindrances encountered by learners in rural contexts in trying to access quality education.

2.1. Equitable education and rural infrastructure

Equitable education promotes learners’ educational performance especially those from marginalised societies, the physically challenged and those from poor backgrounds (Gautier, 2003). Equity in education entails a situation whereby individual or social circumstances such as gender, ethnic origin or family background, are not obstacles to achieving educational potential (definition of fairness) and that all individuals reach at least a basic minimum level of skills (definition of inclusion). Findings from previous research reflect that the issue of equitable education in rural secondary schools is still a cause for concern. Learners from poor family backgrounds still face numerous constraints, a situation that has hindered equitable education in rural communities (Shava, 2020).

Rural areas are remote and poorly developed, consequently the schools in these areas are disadvantaged. They lack basic infrastructure for teaching and learning, roads and other transport, electricity and information communication technologies (ICTs; Mandina, 2012). Thus, most rural areas have a poor socioeconomic background which invariably plays a role in hindering the provision of quality education. Van den Berg (2008) has noted that home background, especially socioeconomic status, is an important determinant of educational outcomes, that strongly affects learning outcomes. The socioeconomic realities of rural areas put the learners at a disadvantage as the requisite materials and conditions required for quality and equitable education will be missing.

Many rural families and communities lack transportation and social programmes for their children, a situation which hinders effective rural education (Beeson & Strange, 2000). Van den Berg (2008) points out that quality education mostly depends on teaching and learning processes, the relevance of curriculum, as well as availability of materials and enabling learning environments, but these requirements are in most cases not available in rural schools. Previous researchers also supported this when they noted that students without basic resources in their schools and environments perform poorly as a result of the learning difficulties they experience within their classrooms. As a result, these learners end up obtaining lower test scores as compared to those of learners in environments with required conditions.

Generally, rural areas have fewer schools, which are located far between each other and at a significant distance from the communities complicating the accessibility for learners. Some learners travel long distances ranging from 5 to 15 km and therefore suffer from walking fatigue, and this affects the level of concentration, participation and learning outcomes. Rural secondary schools also face a marked shortage of qualified teachers and learning materials and other educational resources, such as libraries (Musarurwa, 2011). In Zimbabwe, most qualified teachers shun rural life, and they end up leaving for better conditions or greener pastures like in South Africa, Namibia or Botswana. These are some setbacks that make rural education in Africa unattractive and challenging.

3. Theoretical framework

The General Systems formed the theoretical framework of this study. This is so because systems theory focusses on the interrelationships of elements in nature that exist, for example, in a learning environment . One basic principle of this theory is that everything is connected to everything else. The theory is appropriate to frame this study since it concurs that learning among students can only occur if institutional constraints are holistically tackled to enable efficient and effective teaching to take place in these rural secondary schools. The general systems theory emphasises that a holistic approach is important in that it supports a coordinated approach among key stakeholders. This collaborative approach among various stakeholders goes a long way to address institutional constraints such as lack of learning resources, lack of experienced teachers, psychological challenges and cultural diversity (Darling-Hammond, L., Flook, L., Cook-Harvey, C., Barron, B. & Osher, D, 2020). The theory emphasises a broader perspective on education, which requires rigorous practice, involving approaches, activities and links to outcomes. Therefore, schools need to employ extensive thinking and activities, so that they know what they are doing and measure their actions. The theory emphasises the need to value everyone equally and fairly as this helps in achieving the goals of the schools. The theory provides a basis for the understanding of the dynamics of implementing Sustainable Development Goal number 4 in rural secondary schools that continue to face institutional constraints.

4. Research materials and methods

4.1. The study area

In this study, two rural districts, namely, Seke and Shamva, have been chosen. Seke District is one of the communal areas in Mashonaland East Province, which is situated to the eastern side of Harare city. There are approximately 41 km from Harare to the Seke area. This district has a population of 100 756 people (Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency Report, 2022). There are 22 secondary schools with a total of 7 622 students (Ministry of Primary and Secondary School Strategic Plan, 2016–2020). The community relies heavily on peasant farming (Maruve & Chitongo, 2017). Thus, the community’s major source of income is agriculture with crops such as maize, tobacco, groundnuts and round nuts. In addition, Shamva District is found in Mashonaland Central Province and is situated 98 km to the northern side of Harare city. The community has a population of 70 701 people (Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency Report, 2022). There are 29 secondary schools within the district with a total of 112 99 students based on 2019 statistics (Ministry of Primary and Secondary School Strategic Plan, 2016–2020). The community’s major source of income for their children’s school fees is through peasant farming and mining (Helliker et al., 2018). Thus, although the district is agro-based, the community heavily relies on small-scale mining for their survival as well as source of tuition fees.

4.2. Research approach

This study utilised qualitative research methods to investigate institutional constraints affecting child performance in secondary schools within rural communities. A qualitative research method is that type of research that relies on non-numeric data collection and is usually in the form of words (Jackson et al., 2007). Qualitative research allowed the use of several data collection methods such as focus group discussions, in-depth interviews and analysis of documents.

4.3. Target population and sampling

The study targeted rural secondary schools in Seke and Shamva districts in Mashonaland East and Mashonaland Central provinces in Zimbabwe, respectively. Respondents were purposely selected from officials in the ministry of education wherein one representative was chosen in each district. Researchers also interviewed one public service commission official per district. These four respondents constituted key informants who provided rich information pertaining to educational policy implementation. Sixteen in-depth interviews were held with school heads and some purposefully selected teachers. Experience is a key criterion in selecting respondents for in-depth inteviews. Focus group discussions were held with parents and guardians of learners whose schools were purposefully sampled.

4.4. Data collection and methods

The study triangulated data from interviews, focus group discussions and secondary data elicited from the key policy documents.

4.5. Focus group discussion

The rationale for using the focus group discussion (FDG) in this study was that it offered an opportunity to explore issues that are not well understood or where there is little information prior to the research on the topic. A total of 8 focus group discussions were held with parents and guardians. Using FDG enabled researchers to build the study on the group dynamics and explore the institutional constraints in context. The FDG is reliable and provides valid results that enable the researchers to portray authentic experiences. The principle of theoretical saturation was applied during the focus group discussion sessions where they ran until a clear pattern emerged and subsequent groups produced no new information.

4.6. In-depth interviews (i.e. key informants and individual)

In-depth interviews were held with teachers and administrators in the two districts, and they are distinguished from key informant interviews in the sense that the respondents did not need to be technically conversant with the obtaining educational policies. Inspectors and public service commission workers were purposely selected and are classified as key informants because they provided rich information regarding institutional constraints related to policies. The interviews were audio recorded, and notes were taken during the discussions and interviews. The transcripts from the discussion were transcribed using Microsoft Word 2016. Each interview lasted between 45 and 50 minutes. The principle of theoretical saturation was also applied during the interview sessions where they ran up until a clear pattern emerged and subsequent participants produced no new information.

4.7. Documentary analysis

Data was also collected and analysed using evidence in various key documents. Some documents analysed were school annual reports, reports from the ministry as well as circulars. Again, official statistics were helpful in showing the significant institutional constraints existing in rural secondary schools. Documentary analysis complemented primary data gathered through focus group discussions and in-depth interviews.

4.8. Data analysis

Thematic analysis was used in this study to analyse classifications and present themes (patterns) that relate to the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). It allowed the identification of themes and patterns inherent in the data (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Thematic analysis is not tied to a particular data collection method or any particular epistemological perspective (Maguire & Delahunt, 2017). An overlap between themes was observed in the study. The contextual exploration of these themes is provided below. The themes were highlighted in the findings and discussion sections as follows:

• Education policy is biased towards urban areas.

• Inequality is worsened by geographic context.

• There is a gap between policy formulation and policy implementation.

• Institutional constraints impact people differently even in the same context.

• Coordinated intervention strategies are needed to address rural institutional constraints.

5. Findings and discussions of the study

This section of the study presents the research findings from the fieldwork where respondents were asked some questions to give their own perspectives. The paper discusses the findings thematically to ensure that there is continuity and smooth flow of ideas. The study gathered the following:

5.1. Rural areas are domains of backward educational institutions

The issue of equitable education in rural secondary schools is still a cause for concern. Learners from poor family backgrounds face challenges in accessing adequate food, a situation that has hindered their access to education. Learning institutions in rural areas face challenges such as limited library resources, thereby negatively impacting the potential of rural learners to excel. It emerged from the focus groups that introducing Information Communication Technology in rural communities could be a panacea to library resource constraints as this would necessitate online learning modalities. Whilst urban schools are privileged in accessing good network coverage, their rural counterparts are rarely connected to the various network service providers. Respondents highlighted that physical libraries could also help to improve pass rates among rural learners.

5.2. Policy consciousness and institutional constraints

There is a pronounced gap in terms of policy literacy regarding educational policies in the country. Whilst policies meant to promote equality in education do exist, the majority of people in these rural areas are not aware and therefore cannot claim the various rights enshrined in Circulars. For example, a number of respondents prophesied ignorance on the provisions of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary Education Circular number 3 of 2019. One parent highlighted:

“As parents in this community, we have no idea of the documents like education circulars which urge us as parents that we must ensure that our children should go to school despite the fact that we cannot afford school fees”.

The foregoing sentiment by one of the parents in the Seke community is a clear testimony that most of the parents are not aware of the new policy, i.e., Zimbabwe Circular 3 of 2019 provisions. Many parents or guardians have children staying at home and cannot afford to pay school fees as well as other demands by schools. They are also not aware of the new policy that says learners are not supposed to be sent back home from schools even when they are in arrears.

5.3. Curriculum choice and human capital constraints

Respondents revealed that in rural secondary schools, subjects are imposed according to the availability of teachers to take up such learning areas. A key informant in the public service commission lamented that despite the learners’ wish to take up subjects that are necessary for their growth, they are constrained by the availability of teachers. This scenario is more pronounced in rural schools where there are push factors forcing critical staff to transfer into urban areas.

Untrained, relieved and inexperienced teachers have been the anchor of many schools in Shamva District. Respondents concurred that these teachers may not have the craft competency to teach certain subjects and they can actually skip certain topics deemed as challenging. Thus, inadequate human capital in schools has negatively impacted the potential of rural learners. In this light, one respondent from the Focus Group Discussion in Shamva District mentioned that there are no adequate and professional teachers deployed in these communities. Another key informant concurred with the foregoing that rural secondary schools are treated as “breeding grounds” where temporary or student teachers are deployed before they leave to join urban communities.

High staff turnover, deployment of untrained and inexperienced teachers as well as general hardships experienced in rural areas has severed against the thrust of equitable education. This observation is supported by the sentiments echoed by the respondents who underscored the need to capacitate rural schools with amenities such as rural allowances, rural electrification and provision of the internet.

Feedback from the respondents reveals that the curriculum taught in the schools poses a great challenge towards moulding graduates who are suitable for the 21^st century challenges. As already highlighted, subjects are imposed according to the availability of teachers to take up such lessons. Despite some learners’ wish to take up technical and science subjects, their choice is constrained by the availability of competent teachers. In most cases, the teachers will not be available hence learners may fail to get the needed tuition. Technical subjects such as metal work, technical graphics and wood work are important in transforming livelihoods, yet the brain drain as well as high staff turnover have undermined the continuity of such practical subjects. Respondents highlighted that there is a shortage of experienced teachers with the capacity to teach such highly technical areas.

5.4. Public policy and equality in education

As previously observed, a number of parents and guardians are failing to send their children to school in both public and private schools. The main challenge is that both public and private schools demand the payment of tuition and levies. This entails that underprivileged families will be excluded from accessing education, yet Sustainable Development Goal number 4 demands that member states enable every child to be educated. A scan on the available documents revealed that Zimbabwe has no particular legislation for inclusive education of learners. Whilst government policies are consistent with the intent of inclusive education, they are bereft of the much needed implementation. Examples of such legislations, policies and strategies include the Education Amendment Act of 2020, Disabled Persons Act Ch [17:01] as well as various Ministry of Education circulars (Ministry of Primary and Secondary School Strategic Plan, 2016–2020). It is argued that the policies require that all learners, irrespective of race, religion, gender, creed and disability, have access to primary education. Thus, this implies that education for all is not mandatory to students in secondary schools.

In addition to the foregoing sentiments, the Disabled Persons Act (1996) does not compel the government to provide inclusive education in any concrete way. Among the secondary schools in rural areas, it was observed that the majority do not have the special facilities that are meant to enable effective learning for the disabled. Therefore, it can be concluded that the disabled students are being sidelined as the school environment discriminates them. It is also noted that the Disabled Persons Act precisely prevents citizens with disabilities from suing the Zimbabwean government regarding government facility access issues that may impair their community participation.

One school head had this to say:

“I have been at this school for quite some time and l have realised that in the absence of any mandatory order stipulating the services to be provided, and by whom, how, when, and where, there could be no meaningful educational services for learners with disabilities in Zimbabwe of which those in secondary schools within rural communities are the most affected. This requirement for education for all does not extend to secondary school level, perhaps the Zimbabwean government feels literacy is achievable at Grade 7 level or it views that a high school education is a privilege, rather than a right”.

This observation trashes the attempt to empower learners who aspire to access quality education in rural areas. Public policy provisions have not been used to effect positive changes in line with improved access to education in the country. This is more pronounced for secondary school learners who end up leaving the country as illegal immigrants or join the informal sector.

5.5. Special needs and inclusive education in rural schools

Whilst there is a need to promote inclusive education in schools, it was observed that parents have a stigma against people with certain forms of disabilities. Some parents actually prefer to keep their disabled children at home, thereby disadvantaging them. Learners with special needs are segregated overtly and covertly. The in-depth interviews elicited that some parents are unwilling to consider disabled children as equal beings. According to the focus group discussions, there are some stereotypes that make rural learners sceptical about learning in the same class with people having albinism, epilepsy or any other form of disabilities. This indicates that inclusive education is still yet to be recognised due to lack of understanding and acceptance.

The evidence from the respondents indicates that the level of appreciation of inclusivity among both parents and learners is still minimal. While inclusive education has been defined differently, it involves identification, minimization or elimination of barriers to students’ participation in traditional settings (i.e., schools, homes, communities and workplaces) and the maximisation of resources to support learning and participation (Shava, 2020). According to the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (as cited in Shava, 2020), inclusive education means:

• A fundamental right to education.

• A principle that values students’ wellbeing, dignity, autonomy and contribution to society.

• A continuing process to eliminate barriers to education and promote reform in the culture, policy and practice in schools to include all students.

Thus, this study established that constraints faced by learners living with some form of disability are more pronounced, and they suffer a double burden given that they learn in rural schools that are generally underresourced.

5.6. Environmental constraints to child performance

Parents also shared their sentiments with respect to social amenities in rural areas. It was gathered that learners in rural secondary schools continue to express dissatisfaction in the manner in which distribution of health care facilities are done in the wake of Covid-19 epidemic.

One parent interviewed had this to say:

“As long as the unavailability of proper health care facilities in rural schools still exists, learners remain exposed to vulnerable conditions, hence affecting their participation in their academics”.

The foregoing sentiments were supported by various authors who have expressed that some of the institutional conditions that hinder learners’ learning include cultural background, psychological problems, curriculum changes and allocation of subjects to teachers without considering their areas of specialization (Munaka, 2016). The author also adds school climate, curriculum change, teaching methods, availability of teaching aids, assessment methods, learners’ discipline, school culture, overcrowding in classes, motivation and students’ background as factors that require attention to ensure academic success among learners. These challenges also have spillover effects on the conduct of teachers, and it is argued that academic performance is affected by several factors which include the attitude of some teachers to their job (Shava, 2020). Thus, the attitude is reflected in their poor attendance to lessons, lateness to school, passing of unsavory comments about students’ performance that could damage their ego and poor methods of teaching directly affect students’ academic performance (Ebrahim, 2009). School culture and climate are the heart and soul of the school and its essence draws teachers and students to love it and to want to be a part of it as well (Ebrahim, 2009). The authors further posit that the type of school a learner attends is a factor that has profound influence on his or her academic achievement. School culture affects teaching effectiveness. In this sense, Wheeler and Richey (2005) posit that schools that create learning environments that are safe and supportive for both learners and teachers ensure high teaching and learning outcomes. Opoku-Asare and Siaw (2015) simply describe rural areas as deprived, lacking so many government developmental interventions such as potable water, electricity, good roads and school infrastructure to improve upon the lives of the people. Without first improving access and quality of education, sub-Saharan African countries cannot attain the level of growth needed to reduce poverty in with Agenda 2030 goals.

5.7. Learners’ Experiences in Rural Secondary Schools

Learners in rural areas walk long distances to get tuition as has already been noted. This affects their level of performance as they struggle to concentrate. According to IFAD (2001), 18% of the rural dwellers are at least 1 km away from the nearest water source, and 32% live 22 km from the nearest school and health Centre. Long distances covered by both teachers and pupils have double effect. Learners from rural communities perceive themselves as inferior to those in urban areas. Teachers fail to handle their normal teaching load as they reach the classroom tired (Nelson Mandela Foundation Annual Report, 2005). Similarly, pupils tend to lose concentration, and in many cases doze off while the class is in session (Nelson Mandela Foundation Annual Report, 2005). In addition, access to schools becomes even more difficult during the rainy season as most meeting places and venues become inhabitable. Grass thatched buildings tend to either leak or water finds its way easily into buildings due to poor drainage. Walking from home to school becomes a problem as most rivers and streams get flooded making it difficult for children to access education.

5.8. Infrastructural challenges and segregation in rural schools

Feedback from the respondents indicates that in rural secondary schools, there are no adequate classrooms and some learners work in open air or under trees. The respondents felt that rural secondary schools are treated as less important and receive little support from the government to erect the requisite infrastructure. The obtaining challenges are being encountered despite the fact that the Zimbabwean government has aligned its Education Amendment Act of 2020, to the country’s Constitution amendment number 20 Act of 2013 (Fambasayi & Moyo, 2020). The new Act envisages that every learner has the right to quality and inclusive education, but some learners still face institutional constraints such as lack of Information Communication Technology (ICT) devices. The ICT infrastructure has become necessary in the wake of Covid-19 epidemic whereby school interruptions have become prevalent. The Zimbabwe Education Amendment Act of 2020, has fairly extensive provisions to protect, respect and fulfil the right to education for all children. It addresses issues pertinent to education, including the prohibition of expelling pregnant girls from school, free and compulsory education, sexual and reproductive health issues and the rights of learners with disabilities (Kashaa, 2012). Responses from the study indicate that girls face stigma after falling pregnant and most rural secondary schools have little or no capacity to handle such psychological challenges.

5.9. The interventions that can be implemented to address the institutional constraints

Participants in the study gave their insights on the possible interventions that can be made to improve the obtaining situation for underprivileged communities. It emerged that there is a need to introduce some concrete solutions that will enable effective learning. One such intervention is the introduction of teacher motivation modalities. Giving monetary as well as non-monetary incentives to teachers in rural areas was cited by both parents and teachers as a possible solution to the challenges of high staff turnover. The education mission appears to be reliant on the way teachers feel about their work and how satisfied they are with it (Kielblock, 2018). Therefore, it is not surprising that researchers suggest that “schools must give more attention to increasing teacher job satisfaction” (Finger, 2016; Dinham & Scott, 1998; Heller et al., 1993). There is a need to improve the infrastructure in rural areas through the construction of community libraries, building more specialised units such as disability centres, building laboratories and providing high-speed internet. While governments hold the main responsibility for ensuring the right to quality education, the 2030 Agenda is a universal and collective commitment to transformative education (Shava, 2020). Schools could use departmentally driven programmes to launch their own school-based programmes. Similar studies have established that there was abuse of the cascade model of Teacher Professional Development, which displayed a need for capacity-building and a change of attitude for teachers so that they could use the model to benefit them (Nhlumayo, 2020). African countries must find the political and national will to deal with the constraints of rural education (Chakanika et al., 2012). There is also a need to ensure that there is close monitoring of schools by school heads, school inspectors and school development associations. Collaboration among these key stakeholders will enable relevant and timely feedback that will also improve the prospects of overcoming institutional constraints. This is in line with the theoretical framework adopted in this study where various parts in the system complement each other to ensure maximum results.

6. Conclusion

A number of themes were extracted from the analysed data that enabled the researchers to explain the challenges that affect learner performance and teaching in rural secondary schools in Zimbabwe. The key themes that emerged as institutional constraints towards learner performance and teaching in Seke and Shamva districts were the nature of the teaching and learning environment, institutional factors that relate to teachers, learners and head teachers and lastly policy-related factors. As discussed above, institutional constraints affecting child performance in secondary schools within rural communities are still prevailing. A number of recommendations are also given so that several stakeholders, especially those that have a mandate to address institutional constraints affecting child performance are engaged. However, the multiple impacts including lack of resources, lack of motivation among teachers and psychological challenges of learners have led to serious problems for rural school learners’ academic achievements. Teachers play a pivotal role in any education system, and they are the most important determinant of student learning in the classroom, yet as a result of the poor environment under which teachers work, especially in rural areas, the quality of education has been adversely affected. Finally, teacher training institutions should have programmes to prepare teachers for the conditions of rural teaching. These may include life skills orientation tailor made for rural areas and business models that will enhance their income generation and enhance their capacity to adapt in rural and remote areas. In summary, it is clear from these views that as a result of these numerous problems affecting academic performance of our educational system, the system has failed to not only ensure mass participation but also practice discrimination in manpower distribution and infrastructural facilities. However, evidence gathered from the related literature identified the preference of urban schools to rural schools. The inequalities are made worse by differences in the quantity of teachers, educational facilities and other inputs between schools serving different geographical areas. A lot needs to be done to ensure the institutional constraints in rural secondary schools are addressed.

7. Recommendations

It is recommended that institutional constraints in rural secondary schools should be holistically addressed to afford equitable and inclusive education for learners. Thus, infrastructure for rural learners must be highly prioritised. The ICT and libraries for learners are recommended especially in the wake of global epidemics such as Covid-19 to cover the gap of learning interruptions. In addition, there is need to ensure that rural secondary schools are equipped with necessary health care facilities for learners. Awareness on the dictates of the educational policies is key as there is little or no attempt by the government to inform communities, parents and learners that they can benefit through free education as per Ministry of Education Circular number 3 of 2019. As part of interventions, schools could use departmentally driven programmes to launch their own school-based programmes. Introduction of homegrown solutions such as regular hot meals to students for free and/or at reduced prices during lunchtime may also help learner’s interests to attend school.

Further research

This study was limited to two districts in Mashonaland East and Central provinces. It may not necessarily represent what is obtained in other different contexts and is therefore not exhaustive. The fact that it is a qualitative study also limits its applicability and generalisability. Understanding the impact of constraints can be done using a quantitative approach which looks at the numeric values of the performance of learners in rural secondary schools. This can be done using questionnaires where the learners can be asked to rank the challenges and significance of the challenges therein. A comparative study looking at selected urban and rural schools can also be done to distinguish the obtained constraints. There is also potential for further research in other regions where circumstances could be different.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Leon Marongedza

Leon Marongedza is a police officer in the Zimbabwe Republic Police and also a PhD student of the Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology in the Department of Development Sciences in the Faculty of Agribusiness and Entrepreneurship. He stays in Harare, Zimbabwe.

Promise Machingo Hlungwani

Promise Machingo Hlungwani is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the University of Johannesburg, College of Business and Economics and a lecturer at Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology in the Department of Development Sciences. His postal Address is House Number 24 Muroro Street Marondera Zimbabwe. His email address is

Precious Hove

Precious Hove is a lecturer in the Department of Agribusiness Management at Marondera University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology. She is also the Dean in the Faculty of Agribusiness and Entrepreneurship. She stays in Marondera in Zimbabwe.