Perceptions of leadership, self-confidence and leadership programs among teenage girls in Israel

Abstract

This article examines the way post-primary school contributes to the extent female teenagers perceive themselves as leaders. Based on 14 in-depth interviews among teenage girls who are attending middle and high schools in the public education system in Israel, it focuses on their personal social experiences and perceptions regarding their school as a leadership development establishment. The girls describe leaders, and themselves, as people who are tolerant of other opinions. They stress that self-confidence is a key element in becoming a leader. Leadership programs conducted in schools are viewed as empowering yet not practical. They experience an absence of role modeling and mentoring at school and express an indecisive approach from their school as a leadership development establishment.

Keywords:

• leadership development
• teenage girls
• post-primary school
• leadership programs
• self-confidence
• teacher role modeling

1. Introduction

Women go through substantial obstacles on their way to occupying leading positions compared to men (Eagly & Johannesen-Schmidt, 2002). However, over the last thirty years, women have held more leading positions than before. This fact has brought about a rise in academic research regarding their function as leaders, on the one hand, and the personal endeavors they go through in order to get there, on the other (Chin et al., 2007). Gender equality requires equal opportunities for women in every social establishment, as well as in the educational system. The years adolescent girls spend in middle and high school seem to be part of the many steps women take on their way to realizing their leading potential as adults. Over the last twenty years, research regarding many aspects of adolescent girls’ leadership development has been conducted, and studies that focused on leader development within the school context have emphasized the importance of the right school environment (Eva et al., 2021). Girls tend to develop an incorrect concept of leadership through classroom-based experiences in a way that can sometimes damage their leadership potential, and because these mechanisms are usually unintentional and hard to detect, part of the solution lies in raising the awareness of teachers and educational policymakers (Wang & Wang, 2021).

The connection between leadership and self-confidence has been widely investigated and empirically proved. It was inquired both as a stable personal characteristic that is shaped throughout one’s childhood and adolescence and also as a changing emotional state that develops due to various experiences of different circumstances. High levels of self-confidence have been found as essential for effective leadership and for one’s ability to persuade others to follow him to complete group accomplishments (Axelrod, 2017; Greenacre et al., 2014; Northouse, 2016; Oney & Oksuzoglu-Guven, 2015). Accordingly, studies have examined the way a leader’s personality is formed and the contribution leadership programs have to this (Knoller Levy & Sorek, 2010; Ricketts & Rudd, 2002; Sperandio, 2000; Van Linden & Fertman, 1998). However, a relatively small number of studies focus on girls’ personal leadership perception in the context of their school. Furthermore—We do not have many details on Israeli teenage girls’ school leadership experiences and whether such experiences will influence their positions in future society. Consequently, the purpose of this article is to examine, firstly, the way post-primary schools’ efforts to develop leadership are conceived by teenage girls and, secondly, their experiences during this process. Focusing on Israel as a case study, this research seeks to develop a generic concept regarding the influence of the experience of leadership of female teenagers in post-primary schools on their self-perception.

Noteworthy, this paper fills a gap both in the research of the Israeli case study as well as the general conclusions one can gather from it. Not much research been conducted with reference to Israeli case studies. For example, in a review of 108 studies from various countries over 20 years, Eva et al. (2021) mentioned just one that was carried out in Israel (by Kark & Van Dijk, 2007), and even this barely touches the specific topics of our research. Of course, there are various works in Hebrew about gender equality and its implementation in Israeli high schools (Avgar, 2017; Gilad et al., 2010; Gur Ziv, 2013; Herzog & Valden, 2011; Pedagogical Administration, 2020). However, not many of them attempt to construct generic models for worldwide comprehension and for further academic research.

1.1. The school’s role in developing youth leadership

Youth leadership is the ability to guide others to achieve a shared purpose, but it is also an accumulation of qualities and characteristics such as determination, organizational capability, being able to concentrate, tolerance, decisiveness, self-discipline, charisma, time management, self-confidence, social competence, communicating one’s vision to others, and sensitivity (Hart et al., 2003). School has the potential to advance leadership in many ways. In addition to formal training, students adapt leadership qualities and characteristics over many years in the education system. School serves an important role in motivating and providing leadership experiences through assimilating beliefs, values and expectations that prepare students for their future (Sperandio, 2000). The essence of leadership is taught, among other things, by assigning students to key leading roles at school and by presenting role models to them, such as teachers, administrators, visitors and outstanding students. Adolescents’ participation in demanding roles has long been considered an important developmental factor. Several studies, focusing particularly on schools in the US, have highlighted how the experience of fulfilling roles helped youth build strategic thinking and responsibilities and indicated how trusting program leaders enhanced youths’ active engagement in developmental processes (Griffith & Larson, 2016; Griffith et al., 2018; Larson et al., 2019).

School in general and homeroom teachers in particular have a significant role in youth character building (Fertman & Van Linden, 1999). This includes education for fairness, collaboration, respect, responsibility, hope, determination and loyalty. Fertman and Van Linden describe the specific skills that should be taught by schools in order to enable adolescent girls and boys to fulfill their leadership potential. These years, they claim, are critical for developing leaders-to-be, and school is the ideal place for them to learn universal human values that will help them make good decisions in the future.

There are some theoretical models for leadership development. Ricketts and Rudd’s five-dimension model for leadership development, for example, is intended to be implemented in formal education institutions (Ricketts & Rudd, 2002). School influences youth leadership development but not enough, according to them. Therefore, schools should invest in leadership programs. Their model comprises learning what is currently known about leadership; developing a leading approach, will and ambition; making original decisions and using critical thinking; talking, writing and communication skills; and interpersonal relationships. This training will provide students with diverse occupational possibilities since an educational background in management, leadership and marketing is required for many positions.

This study, however, relies on the theoretical and practical work of Van Linden and Fertman (1998). In their book Youth Leadership: A Guide to Understanding Leadership Development in Adolescents, the authors present a three-stage model: (1) self-awareness of one’s leadership potential, mostly with adults helping them to be aware of that potential; (2) interaction (involvement in activities that encourage leadership abilities and skills); and (3) mastery (acquiring leadership skills and influencing others through techniques learned). All three stages require a specific set of plans and actions concerning leadership information, leadership attitudes, communication skills and stress management skills.

Knoller Levy and Sorek (2010) suggest a model that is called “The complete perception” and point out three universal aspects for leadership development among adolescents: (1) teenagers should learn skills and methods (How should I act and how do I do it well?); (2) they should then develop motivation (Should I act? Why me?); and (3), most importantly, they should develop a vision, an ideology (What needs to be done and why?). Being able to do this last step requires that an individual should know themselves and their identity, know their community and where they came from, and be sure as to where they are going, meaning rules, policy and politics (Knoller Levy & Sorek, 2010, p. 100).

In practice, it seems that developing leadership among teenagers in Israel is done mainly outside school through informal education or municipal council activities. According to research conducted among national student council members, most of the subjects claimed student council activities have intensified skills and expertise such as speech, self-confidence, leadership and independence (Peleg, 2000). During their activities, they obtained a sense of empowerment and trust in their ability to act and succeed. They mentioned acquiring planning and organizational skills, time management abilities, pursuing their goals and taking responsibility for their actions. These students have learned and practiced decision-making, standing in front of an audience, teamwork, meeting management, negotiating, complex perception, compromising, patience and tolerance. All of these skills, they say, could not have been taught in school.

1.2. Focusing on girls

In order to explain the way teenage girls adopt leading characteristics and acquire leadership skills, we should pay attention to the uniqueness of their emotional and behavioral state during puberty. At this age, gender identity is formed, not only in a physical way but also in a social manner. Girls of this age are trying to balance between conforming behavior that is in line with social expectations and their independent aspirations, free will and speaking their own voice as traditional gender roles become more apparent. Harter (1999) states that girls appear to take fewer risks than boys; most of them fear competitive situations that are perceived as not feminine and often focus on their body image. This influences their behavior and their avoidance of certain social situations.

Supposedly these days, when dramatic social, political and cultural changes occur, girls seem to be pioneers of a new subjectivity (Harris, 2004). They are socially constructed as being able to cope with these changes ideally. Power, opportunities and success are all portrayed in the “future girl”: a young girl who celebrates passion, decisiveness and confidence while taking control of her life, taking chances and fulfilling herself. Nevertheless, Harris suggests not perceiving this as an entirely positive notion but, in fact, as a way of regulating girls and as an expression of control (Harris, 2004).

A report published in Israel in 2006 by Kahan-Strawczynski et al. analyzing studies concerning teenage girls stated that subjects such as body image, general wellbeing, happiness, self-confidence and helplessness seem to draw a more complicated picture for girls in comparison to teenage boys. Therefore, finding suitable solutions that consider gender differences is necessary. On the other hand, the report also suggests using subjects in which girls seem stronger and better as a way to empower them. These subjects include social skills and a positive attitude toward school.

1.3. Self-confidence and adolescent girls

When it comes to expressing strength, women and girls often find themselves in a complicated situation. Qualities such as the ability to communicate or to show empathy are viewed as “feminine”, while characteristics such as confidence and assertiveness are perceived as “masculine”. Therefore, girls seem to understand through their experiences during early adolescence that adopting masculine behavior might label them as “aggressive” or “dominant” (Radin, 2015). This gendered assumption is also noticeable in girls’ under-representation and lower performance in subjects such as mathematics (Cann, 2009; Jones, 1995) and the sciences (Kahle et al., 1993; Ziegler & Heller, 2000). Succeeding in these fields raises a conflict of identity among girls.

Girls’ self-confidence declines during adolescence due to a fear of failure, self-image, the pressure of perfectionism, and comparison to peers (Vincent, 2019). When leadership is concerned, Archard (2012a) found that girls at times lacked confidence in their leadership ability and underestimated themselves as a leader. They also displayed doubt in relation to their skills and ability, particularly in comparison with others. However, studies show that leadership programs have a positive effect on girls’ self-confidence. Teenage girls report and express significantly more confidence after participating in such projects (Hoyt & Kennedy, 2008; Mann et al., 2015; Segovia-Pérez et al., 2021; Whittington & Aspelmeier, 2018). Developing self-confidence is found to be a key element in attaining a strong sense of resilience among adolescent girls, and empowering programs for girls are one of the most effective ways to achieve a firm connection between these two elements (Mampane, 2014).

1.4. Leadership among teenage girls

In recent years, we have noticed a change in gender stereotypes, and girls are now occupying more leading positions during school and after-school activities. Leadership is taught through programs and specific activities in formal and informal ways as well as through experience. In a study conducted in all-girls schools in Australia and South Africa, teenage girls’ perspectives on leadership were examined by letting them express their own unique voice in group discussions (Archard, 2013). They were asked: What is leadership? Where and how is leadership taught? How does it actually occur? The results demonstrated not only the girls’ excellent understanding of what leadership is but also the fact that they actively functioned in accordance with this understanding. They defined leadership as an active process of working with others in a positive way.

In large-scale research concerning adolescent girls’ leadership conducted by CARE (an organization that focuses on humanitarian activity in developing countries), Baric et al. (2009) pointed out some key elements necessary for leadership development. The goal, they state, is not only to make girls perform leadership actions but also to teach them skills such as self-discovery and self-reflection. They should know themselves better and have a critical approach to the environment in which they live. Leadership in the formal education system must be enhanced, and research concentrating on leadership within schools should be done. The authors also claim that we should provide girls with safe zones for action and caring adults to guide them. Sperandio (2000) showed in her study in Uganda how an unsafe environment, without role models and parental presence, leads to violence, oppression and abuse. Therefore, to provide an environment that enables leadership among adolescent girls, adults should adapt leadership skills and empower girls with self-independence (Cornwall, 2016; Gates, 2014; Klugman, 2014).

Trumpy and Elliott (2019), observing two gender-segregated leadership summer camps, indicated that programs designed to tear down gender barriers often unintentionally reinforce gendered expectations and stereotypes of both sexes. Thus, the environment should positively highlight female leaders so that these messages will cause adolescent girls to believe they can and should be engaging in leadership. Otherwise, girls are likely not to see themselves as potential leaders because society does not see them as such (Alfrey & Twine, 2017; Bian et al., 2017).

1.5. The role of post-primary school in developing leadership among female teenagers

Teaching leadership is important at any age, but there is a special effect in doing so at middle and high school. Post-primary education provides elements of critical thinking, civil perception and democratic values, and therefore leadership is intensified in a much deeper sense. Through the ages of 10–14, teenage girls experience many physical changes and are much more aware of traditional gender roles. Baric and colleagues (2009) claim that before puberty, girls express their opinions and emotions and have a strong sense of self. During adolescence, on the other hand, they are socially pressured to conform to the ideal female model constructed by society and, at the same time, they desire personal independence. There is a concern about losing their own voice (Gilligan, 1993). Changes in girls’ perceptions of their future aspirations will not happen spontaneously unless we intervene. If we do not aim our efforts at girls’ specific needs, they might miss opportunities for success (Baric et al., 2009).

As stated already, school has an essential role in character building and in creating a solid foundation for leading youth (Agboola & Tsai, 2012; Diggs & Akos, 2016; See & Arthur, 2011; Wallin, 2003; Zurqoni et al., 2018). It also significantly influences young women’s beliefs and understandings of leadership and the opportunities to develop and practice leadership (McNae, 2011; Sperandio, 2000). Encouraging women into leading positions in the education system (leading teachers, principals, etc.) is critical since it enables teenage girls to start considering career options while observing leading female role models and gender equality (Sperandio & Sherman, 2010). Still, it is difficult to evaluate the extent to which girls believe in their ability to lead and if they are receiving the necessary means in order to achieve their leadership goals. A study conducted in the US by Hoyt and Kennedy (2008) showed that before participating in a feminist-based leadership program, the subjects expressed traditional views regarding the connection between women and leadership, but afterward, they asserted a much more diverse point of view while also viewing themselves as matching these definitions. The girls expressed themselves in a more vigorous and confident manner and were more willing to act as leaders (Hoyt & Kennedy, 2008).

1.6. Integrating leadership with the school curriculum in Israel

The education system in Israel grants students knowledge and practice of leadership through various channels at the same time. Several programs state that they are designed to teach leadership, while others do so indirectly by emphasizing features such as responsibility, social involvement, project leading and personal empowerment. Through the Society and Youth Administration, a department of the Ministry of Education, programs for young guides are carried out as early as the eighth grade for students who express an interest in organizing holiday camps for children and field trips all over the country. This department is also in charge of the student council in schools, in cities, and at a national level. Participating in the program “Personal development and social involvement”, established in 2014, is required of every student during three years of high school, the purpose of which is to encourage the realization of their personal potential to become independent, resilient, full of self-worth and sensitive to other people’s needs.

In addition, the principals and staff of each and every school have the opportunity to combine several leadership programs in the curriculum, such as young mediators’ groups, empowerment groups and initiative programs. Some invite lecturers and experts from external programs who specialize in leadership to talk to the students. Leadership is also taught formally within different lessons: history and civics lessons, for example, include discussions about historical or political figures through the ages. Some lessons in literature are dedicated to a character displaying a leadership personality. Bible lessons very often discuss great biblical leaders and the way they ruled and made crucial decisions. All classes in post-primary schools in Israel are obligated to have a lesson called “educational lessons” at least twice a week. These lessons are all about values, life skills, communicating with each other, and getting to know one another in an informal way. Some of these lessons are meant to encourage leading potential among the students.

After thoroughly examining all existing leadership programs and forms of acquiring leadership within post-primary schools, almost none was found to consider gender differences. The instructions given by the Ministry of Education to teachers, principals and guides to establish leadership skills in boys and girls are identical.

2. Research questions

The following research questions were conceived to understand the process of leadership development in school as teenage girls in Israel perceive it:

RQ1:

How do teenage girls conceptualize leadership in general and perceive themselves as leaders?

RQ2:

How do teenage girls perceive their own and their peers’ self-confidence regarding their leadership abilities?

RQ3:

What are the experiences of teenage girls regarding leadership programs and lessons in their schools?

RQ4:

Do teenage girls perceive people in their school environment to be leadership mentors or role models?

RQ5:

What are the teenage girls’ perceptions about school as the main leadership development establishment?

3. Methodology

Educational research must point out the explicit and implicit processes in educational organizations to construct essential identity, criticize and reveal practices defining positions of power to certain groups (Sipe & Ghiso, 2004). Consequently, we chose a qualitative methodology for this study because qualitative research focuses on the lived experiences of people and the realm where individual beliefs and actions are combined. The interpretive practices that are constructed in the frameworks of qualitative research make the world more visible and more understandable, particularly in our quest to comprehend the social world from the perspective of the individual (Denzin & Lincoln, 2018).

Interviews are commonly practiced in the field of education, and the qualitative approach developed the technique of the in-depth interview in a dialogical and flexible form. In-depth interviews are a means for a descriptive study that aims to comprehend the worldviews and perspectives of informants in specific circumstances (Brinkman, 2018). Hence, to extract the meaning that girls give to their experiences during their everyday lives, in-depth data was mainly gathered by interviews conducted with 14 teenage girls (aged 13 to 18) from 11 different schools in Israel.

Unlike qualitative studies, qualitative research is mediated through a human instrument and some personal details about the researcher might be therefore essential (Greenblank, 2003). In particular, any assessment of the results should take into account even the slightest possibility of bias made by the researcher’s own reactions and reflections (Punch, 1998). Full disclosure of the profile of the leading researcher who handled the fieldwork in this study is bound to assist in eliminating such flaws and overcoming methodological defaults. Shenhav Perets, the leading researcher of this study, is a teacher of history and civics who has excelled in her academic studies of sociology and anthropology. She fulfilled high-level positions in the retail sector before she made a career shift to education. With the comprehension of what it takes to be a manager in the field of business, particularly for a woman, Perets has been observing throughout her years of working as a teacher the various leadership training programs for young girls.

A random sampling method was adopted (Shenton, 2004), which has the advantage of avoiding researcher bias in the selection of participants. It is also a procedure that provides the greatest assurance that those selected are a representative sample of the larger group (Bouma & Atkinson, 1995). The 14 girls were sampled randomly either by meeting teenage girls and their parents from various cities in Israel on different occasions, by hearing about individuals through preliminary interviews, or by asking for interviewees through social media platforms, such as WhatsApp. The number of girls who were interviewed was determined by the data that was gathered, according to the criteria of sufficiency and saturation: when occurrences of the same phenomenon are being studied, researchers should continue to add instances until nothing new is learned about the phenomenon (Schwandt & Gates, 2018).

The interview was guided by a sharing approach, which allowed the interviewee to be given center stage for expressing her experiences (Devault, 1990; Reinharz, 1992). Throughout the interview, active listening was implemented as part of the approach, which assisted with the sensitive identification of the mechanisms examined in the words used by the interviewee and in the interviewer’s clarification questions. The fact that the interviewer was a woman enabled closeness and intimacy despite the generation gap (Edwards, 1993).

As mentioned, the students attend different middle and high schools in the public education system in Israel. Each one participated in one or more leadership programs in her school or at least attended lessons and lectures revolving around the subject. Due to the outbreak of COVID-19 and social distancing obligations, the interviews were conducted over Zoom, one of many applications that made face-to-face meetings possible during lockdowns. Each interview was conducted while the interviewee was at home in order to provide a sense of security and encourage openness. The interviews lasted approximately one hour. The subject of the study and its sociological and social implications were explained to the interviewees and to their parents well in advance. Parents’ written consent was received prior to the interview, and it was clarified to both them and their daughters that participating in this study was optional and not mandatory. It was also emphasized that their personal details would remain confidential.

The data analysis method used in the current study was based on data distribution into thematic units of meaning raised by the interviewee (Sacks, 1972). The analysis was based on several stages (Schmidt, 2004): first, categories were formed through a process of marking similarities and differences between the interviews. Then, using a coding process, passages in the transcripts were related to the categories. The third stage involved gathering all passages concerning a specific theme into tables that enabled all answers, statements and comments made by the participants to be compared. This method enabled the classification and organization of the large amount of information provided by the interviewees, as well as the identification of mechanisms that shape the process of establishing a leadership personality, which is one of the most important aims of the present study. Thus, how each interviewee placed herself and her identity in relation to the processes or activities she took part in could be more clearly ascertained (Author et al., 2011). Each interview included four general content categories:

1. The way the interviewee describes herself: Character traits, early childhood, hobbies, after-school activities, etc.

2. The school she attends: Does it play a key role in her life? What distinguishes her school from other schools? What unique and special programs does it offer? School atmosphere and prominent figures are also considered in this category.

3. Leadership: What is leadership? Who does she consider to be a leader? What are the skills and traits that leaders should have? Does she consider herself to be a leader, and does she implement leadership in her everyday activities within school or after school?

4. Leadership in school: In what way is leadership taught in the school she attends? Are there any leadership skills and methods that are provided? Is there a gendered perspective regarding this subject?

Youth leadership is shaped by the social context within which it functions. This point of departure guided the interview analysis in the current study. The multitude of meanings and experiences expressed by the 14 girls was first recognized using a qualitative analysis method. Patterns were then identified using the same method, which clarified the process that led to the shaping of the interviewee’s perceptions.

Member checking, also known as a participant or respondent validation, is a recommended strategy for exploring the credibility of results. According to this technique, research results are returned to participants to check for accuracy and resonance with their experiences (Birt et al., 2016). However, this study has synthesized and decontextualized the testimonies of individual participants; this procedure, an inherent part of any qualitative research, deprives interviewees of the ability to lead accountable post-hoc evaluations of their own experiences (Morse et al., 2002; Morse, 2018). Hence, to ensure methodological coherence, sampling sufficiency, and a logical relationship between sampling, data collection and analysis, this research used the technique of peer debriefing, where bias can be uncovered and various research faults can be detected (Morse, 2018; Spall, 1998). Three peer reviewers were selected for this purpose: (1) Mrs. Yael Sade, a Ph.D. candidate at Ariel University, who had spent several decades in Israel’s education system advising principals and teaching in teachers’ colleges; (2) Mrs. Adina Lowinger-Amosi, a Ph.D. student at Ariel University and an experienced pedagogical counselor for teachers and students training to become teachers; and (3) Dr. Einat Shushan-Refaeli, who leads the education system for Israeli civics teachers in the northern district of the country.

4. Results

Five main themes arose from the interviews. Firstly, the girls describe leaders, and themselves, as people who are tolerant of other opinions and are willing to listen to their adherents. Secondly, they stress that self-confidence is a key element in becoming a leader and that teenage girls lack this. Thirdly, leadership programs conducted in schools are viewed by them as empowering, however, implementing the knowledge they have learned is almost impossible. The fourth theme indicates an absence of role models and mentors among teachers and staff. Lastly, the girls portray an indecisive approach to their school as a leadership development establishment.

4.1. A leader’s character and the self-perception of leadership

It seems that most of the girls participating in this study understand what leadership is and what the traits and skills required for a leader are. They even indicated that they have most of these characteristics themselves. They pointed out traits and abilities that are similar to the results of other research done in this field: charisma, resourcefulness, setting goals and achieving them, courage, teamwork, decision-making, intelligence and assertiveness (Archard, 2013; Baric et al., 2009; Hart et al., 2003). They described a leader as a person who has the ability to gather people around him or her and who strives toward objectives that will benefit the group he or she leads and him or her personally.

Interestingly, most of the interviewees emphasized that leaders should be tolerant and able to really listen to other people’s opinions while particularly highlighting the compassionate element of his or her character and the personal relationship he or she must have with their followers. This concept is demonstrated in the following interview extracts:

I think he should also be attentive. Know how to be tolerant, forgiving, because things will not always happen as he wants them to.

(Student 1)

He should be able to know what he wants to do, but at the same time listen to others.

(Student 3)

Hertzel, Begin, they were fearless. They were not afraid of what happens and always focused on their goal. Although other people said they would not succeed, eventually they did and became great men. They knew how to listen to others when it was needed, not only having their own opinion.

(Student 4)

Mostly, he should be able to accept everyone because a leader who does not accept everyone is not a leader. There is no such thing. You have to be accepting and receptive and really knowledgeable. Leading is knowing. Knowing everything.

(Student 8)

After explaining what the most prominent features of a leader are, the girls were asked whether they consider themselves to have these features. All of them answered “Yes”, some more bluntly than others, but undoubtedly all shared the way in which their leadership is realized, or at least expressed a willingness to lead when circumstances force this kind of duty upon them:

Yes, a lot of people tell me I am a leader. I know how to work in a team and take over when necessary. To listen when I should, to organize them if their minds wander. We work as a team every day of the week, and everyone is assigned to lead a team. He’s the one that has to make sure they don’t work individually. They [teachers] do it equally, but when I am the head of a team, our team usually finishes first.

(Student 7)

I have the confidence and sensitivity to approach people. I can talk to people, and they easily open up to me. I think I could act wisely about something, but I’m not a person who […]. I’d rather be led than do it myself, although I think I could lead.

(Student 10)

I think I’m a social leader. I can. I think I’m loyal, sometimes over-controlling, and sometimes I need to take a break. Sometimes I can be bossy and lose my temper, but sometimes I can rule with calmness and understanding. I think a lot of people like me as their leader but some … I will not use the word jealous, but I don’t like being led. I am too much of a bragger and don’t take any criticism, but I can lead a group of people and do good things.

(Student 2)

Listening to these girls made it quite clear that the most important abilities leaders should have, according to them, are being able to listen to others and being a tolerant person. These traits are part of the meaning they attribute to themselves as leaders. Their use of phrases such as “To listen when I should”, “sensitivity to approach people”, “easily open up to me” or “calmness and understanding” reveals the significance they attach to these virtues in a leader generally and in them as leaders specifically. When they were asked if there is a difference, from their own perspective, between male or female leaders, all firmly stated that there is not, although they mentioned that there are more men who are leaders in our world than women. Most of them kept emphasizing that a woman is able to do a very good job at leading in many areas and that leadership is not exclusively designed for men.

Nevertheless, when they were asked to name female leaders (in general), 10 out of the 14 could only mention one name: Golda Meir (Israel’s prime minister in the early 1970s). One interviewee named a famous Israeli movie star (Gal Gadot), another named her own mother and grandmothers as leaders, and another named Kamala Harris, while the rest of the girls said that there are a lot of female leaders, but they could not remember any names. On the other hand, when asked to name male leaders, each of them mentioned at least three, including the then prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu, Israel’s then president Reuven Rivlin, former prime minister Yitzhak Rabin, Theodor Herzl, the most famous political Zionist of the 19^th century, David Ben-Gurion, the first Israeli prime minister, the former Israeli prime minister Menachem Begin, and a famous Jewish philanthropist from the 19^th century, Edmond de Rothschild. One student named Martin Luther King, another named Josef Stalin, Vladimir Lenin and Donald Trump, and two interviewees named Adolf Hitler.

The students were able to define what is required from a leader and what skills he or she should have in order to undertake this demanding role. They also expressed a high level of self-perception as leaders and a personal belief in their ability to guide people toward achieving a goal both today and in the future. Contrarily, their knowledge of world leaders is lacking and deficient. It seems to be limited to historical figures they learned about in history classes or to political figures mentioned in everyday media. As for their knowledge of female figures, it seems they found it difficult to name any leader at all.

4.2. Self-confidence as a central element of leadership and as a weak spot for teenage girls

Teenage girls often express a lack of self-confidence, even when they succeed (Skelton, 2010). What causes this perception is usually a fear of failure when it is even greater than confidence in success, and girls sometimes find reasons for failing even before doing a task (Archard, 2012a). This study highlights the self-confidence factor within the leadership discourse. Every student interviewed for this research expressed herself by using this factor in order to explain how much of a leader she is or can be. Indeed, being confident is one of the main character builders that are essential for leadership development among teenagers (Hart et al., 2003; Hoyt & Kennedy, 2008; Peleg, 2000). Yet, when the students had to articulate their feelings and opinions about the way teenage girls in general or their girlfriends in particular behave in this context, they pointed to a lack of confidence as a central element of their identity. For example, Student 9 emphasized how the young mediators’ program provided her with a sense of self-confidence:

It gave me so much confidence in myself because, as a mediator, you have to be sure of yourself. Know what you’re doing, what you’re talking about. There are several stages to giving a person the solution to his problem without his knowing you did that. I need to give him a very small part of the solution, and he should take it from there.

On the other hand, when talking about other girls, the same student determined that girls have very low self-confidence and that they will do anything in order not to stand out:

I have two words for you: lacking confidence. That’s it. This is where it begins and where it ends. I have a strange relationship with this concept myself. Either I hate it or love it, and I’m sure I’m not the only one. When a certain girl lacks confidence, she will not raise her hand. She will not speak. She will not do, she will not stand out. She will do anything to sit still. Sit aside and read a book.

Student 1 also claims to have a lot of self-confidence, yet while observing the girls around her, she points to a lack of confidence being a very prominent element and mentions that the way to overcome this is to have these girls take a leadership program at school:

A person can lead others once he has charisma and self-confidence and trusts himself. He believes in himself before he wants others to believe in him. I think I believe in myself, that I can do anything I want to do, or will want to do, and that I can lead people. Yes, I believe in myself. I have confidence […]. I think it [the leadership program] will build a lot of confidence among girls because as soon as you work on it, even on the smallest things like standing in front of an audience and explaining your opinions. There are many girls who have trouble even standing in front of people. Even in front of 10 people. So I think it’s something that should be dealt with at school. Leadership and the abilities it requires.

Self-confidence is perceived as a critical aspect of the ability to stand in front of a small-scale audience, such as a class, or an even smaller one. It is found to be an expression of leadership from the interviewee’s standpoint. From a realistic point of view and a sincere observation of the situation girls are facing in a middle or high school environment, the interviewees identified a lack of self-confidence as a weak spot. Twelve students shared the fact that the girls in their class do not participate as much as boys when questions are asked by teachers or when members of the class are asked to express their opinion. They mostly fear reactions such as ridicule and disrespect from the boys. Many of them stated that girls’ and boys’ participation in class during elementary school was pretty much the same and that girls’ silence slowly and gradually intensified over the years. Student 13 interestingly explained this conduct as a way of serving two purposes:

I think it’s a kind of joint effort. They [boys] are trying to oppress them [girls] in order to become dominant, and they [girls] try to oppress themselves so they look attractive. So they laugh at their jokes, agree with everything they say. It doesn’t seem right.

Student 5 described what she believes teachers should say to girls in order to build up their confidence:

They should turn to us and say: even if you make a mistake, it’s not so bad. You’ll do better next time. These are just questions, and you shouldn’t get too worried. Even if the boys say something, just don’t give a damn. They [boys] could be the ones making a mistake, not us. They [teachers] must talk to girls apart from boys because the boys might interrupt or yell.

Student 12 described similar situations where girls are often silent in class, but she attributed this to girls’ behavior in general, regardless of boys’ presence:

A lot of girls are shy, but not because they’re girls. They choose not to stand out even when there are only girls around.

Only one student (Student 7) proudly announced that she had some very powerful and assertive girls in her class and stressed that these characteristics are more apparent among girls as opposed to boys. Her class is not an ordinary one. She attends Nahshon class, where the number of boys is a third of all students and which aims to “develop and nurture a moral and talented youth, creating a potential for future leaders in Israel” (Israeli Ministry of Education, Parents Portal, 2020). Apparently, girls portray a more confident approach and bravely express their minds in a class that has a female majority and where a leader’s personality is encouraged.

4.3. High expectations—low effect

The educational establishment in Israel is implementing leadership programs both on a national level and on a local level. These programs are equally aimed at girls and boys and often lack any gender reference. In general, every student attending middle and high school has some sort of association with leadership during this time, either formally through fields such as history, civics and Jewish legacy or informally through education lessons, ceremonies, enriching workshops, field trips and leadership groups.

Each of the interviewees participated or is now participating in at least one leadership program, yet most of them seem to express disappointment as to their effectiveness. Some attribute this to the high rates of dropout over the year, and others to the fact that the project’s potential was not put into practice. The gap between expectations and results is apparent in the words of Student 1:

I don’t think that, for example, [a] student council is really a form of leadership. The idea of a student council is a nice idea … but I don’t think that they’re actually leaders because they don’t change anything in school. I don’t think school is prepared for rules to change stuff like that. The things they change aren’t really changes … I think that if the idea of [a] student council is to make a change from the students’ perspective, then I don’t think it’s happening or will ever happen.

Other students expressed similar opinions:

I did it [“Personal development and social involvement” program] in an afternoon childcare facility. Like, with kids. Yes, I can say I had to say: “Kids, let’s play!” and take charge. There were some kids I felt more connected to personally because they were very sweet, but after I finished my obligation, I never went back there.

(Student 10)

It [the “Sail” project] has to do with the “Personal development and social involvement” program that you must do in 10^th grade. It was supposed to be somehow linked to leadership. I didn’t see the connection. It was supposed to be about being responsible to others, but I didn’t see it as a leadership program.

(Student 8)

I think the goal [of the young mediators’ group] was good, but something went wrong along the way. We had real high hopes, but it wasn’t realized in school. Students didn’t cooperate, and I can see why … the group had very high expectations, our guide had high expectations and she made us feel excited about it. But we are students ourselves. We know how students think.

(Student 9)

Education lessons that are meant, among other things, to instruct life skills and values, including self-leadership and leadership in general, are perceived by the students as inefficient, boring and taught in an unconvincing way. Some mentioned never hearing about leadership during these lessons, and if they did, they did not remember the contents of the lesson. When asked whether they experienced other lessons in other fields where leadership was mentioned or taught in one way or another, most answered “No” or “I don’t remember”. Student 1 talked about a project called “Revolutionary women” conducted in her civics class but also shared the antagonism it revealed among the boys:

We had to prepare a presentation for [our] civics lesson and tell the story of a woman who started some kind of a revolution, a pioneer. It really made us aware of the number of women we didn’t even know and really made a big difference. We had no idea that they were the ones who did those things. Suddenly the boys in my class realized that this or that woman had changed the world. They were having a hard time with this assignment. They showed their contempt because all of a sudden they felt deprived of their rights. “Why do we have to do this project on women?” “Why can’t we do it on men?”

It must be specified that the “Young guides” program was described by any girl who took part in it, or who had heard about it from her friends, as an enriching, fulfilling and enjoyable project. They perceived it as a very good leadership program that actually provides tools and skills that are important for leading. Apart from this program, and despite the fact that the interviewees were active participants in various leadership programs and projects, very few found this process to fully execute substantial leadership training. Those who did perceive the programs as building a leader’s character pointed out the personal development they saw in themselves while emphasizing not being able to observe true changes in other girls’ states of mind or in the school environment. Furthermore, lessons dealing with leadership had little impact on these girls.

4.4. Lack of leadership role models in school

School plays a very important part in building character and in providing a good foundation for the development of youth leaders, being an institution that instills leadership values, motivation and skills. An essential part of the school environment and school spirit is the quality of the staff. Each staff member, including the principal, vice-principals, teachers, volunteers and administrators, has some degree of influence over girls’ leadership development. Promoting women to leading positions in the education system (leading teachers, department managers, principals) provides teenage girls with the ability to start considering career options and presents gender equality while observing a leading female role model (Sperandio & Sherman, 2010). Studies have indicated that there is a necessity to provide mentors to young women, especially future leaders among them, in order to prepare them for leadership and for overcoming obstacles (Archard, 2012b; Eagly & Carli, 2007; Valerio, 2009).

The lack of staff members who serve as leading figures or role models is one of the main themes that came up in the interviews. The students found it difficult to point out even a single person who apparently has a leader’s personality. Student 6, for example, said:

Not all teachers set a good example for the students, so it’s problematic. But it really depends on the teacher. One teacher can be very meaningful to you and teach you all sorts of values and things you’ll remember, and there’s another teacher that just comes to do her job. It really depends on the person.

Student 8 added:

The teachers are there to teach, the janitor is there to fix things, and the principal – I saw him once and he complimented me on my shoes. My homeroom teacher is nice and all that, but since she is also the vice-principal and has a lot on her mind, she doesn’t have too much time for us. She used to cancel education lessons because she didn’t have time to teach.

When students were asked during the interview to focus on a significant figure for them at school, those who said that they had one referred to the extent to which this figure is close to them personally. They spoke of the unique and interesting way in which this person teaches. It was quite difficult to find descriptions of leadership qualities or abilities with regard to their teachers. Student 3, for instance, said:

I can tell you about my homeroom teacher, who is also the class coordinator. She really knows how to gather us around, but she can also be our friend. I can talk to her very openly, and she helps me study. She knows how to put me in place and our class in place, and all of our classes too since she is the class coordinator.

Student 5 added:

Our principal. All the staff in general. During recess, teachers approach us. If something happens, they are always with us. Always give us a sense of confidence. Of “You are not alone”. My Hebrew teacher. She is very organized. She is tough, but it’s for our own good. She always adds knowledge and ways to study better. She’s not only passing educational material on to us and says: “It’s your problem if you don’t remember”. She always repeats the material, always helps us to remember it well, and really wishes us success.

Talking to the students about members of staff whom they perceive as leaders or as people who are admirable made it very clear that teachers’ images through the eyes of students are not characterized by their confidence, resourcefulness or leading nature, nor their charisma, courage or the ability to take brave decisions. The interviewees mention teachers approaching them, taking care of them, sometimes treating them as friends and providing them with ways to remember the material. However, three out of the 14 interviewees described one member of staff in a more leading-oriented manner. Student 11 emphasized her teacher’s personality as being very reliable. She is a person everyone admires and looks up to:

My math teacher is super important in our school. Everyone respects her, and it’s got to a point where her word is valued more than the principal’s. No one questions her judgment, they just trust her. It’s amazing to watch her as such a key figure in our school.

Student 13 felt she should mention her teacher’s military experience. This detail was perceived as being highly connected to the ability to lead. A woman serving as a commander in the Israeli army seems very impressive to girls who have not yet joined the army:

My history teacher was very caring but controlling … She used to check on her students and, at the same time, she had a very meaningful presence in the room. She was a commander in the army. A military woman till she was 40. I really loved her.

Student 7, who was studying in the Nahshon class, was the only one who described her homeroom teacher with features that are associated with leadership:

Yes, I do have one teacher. He is the one that introduced the Nahshon program to our school. He thinks beyond school. He thinks about your personality, about your integrity, about your character. He is a good teacher. He is our civics teacher and also our homeroom teacher. For example, he says that the teacher’s personal evaluation of the students should be more than 10 percent of the final grade. He doesn’t care if we did our homework or listened carefully in lessons because, at the end of the day, it’s for our own good. If he walks into the classroom and sees something he doesn’t like, he won’t make any compromises. He will educate us.

Her teacher focuses his efforts on building his students’ character and shaping their personality. Student 7 describes him as a person who insists on values and principles that are important to him. He leads his class toward understanding and learning from their mistakes. Student 7 values him for the person he is, not just for his teaching skills.

4.5. Should school be the main leadership development establishment?

Teenage years are critical for developing the leaders of tomorrow, and school is the place they should be learning universal human values that will serve them in making good decisions in the future (Fertman & Van Linden, 1999). School plays a significant role in character building, and it lays the foundations for developing positive leadership. Moreover, studies indicate post-primary school as a major female leadership development establishment due to its ability to provide room for critical thinking and a democratic agenda. It is a place for adolescent girls to develop self-confidence while observing leading female role models occupying key positions (Sperandio & Sherman, 2010). Teenage girls often face situations in which they have to make decisions, be assertive and lead. Yet, an element of indecisiveness toward their school as a leadership development establishment was reflected during the interviews. Sometimes girls expressed contradicting opinions during the same interview: objecting to leadership programs for girls on the one hand and supporting them on the other. Some stated that the school’s educational staff should teach and guide these programs, and others insisted external organizations should do the job. Listening to the students made it very evident that their views concerning the school’s position in this manner should be divided into two main themes: (a) leadership can only be learned through life experience; and (b) leadership can be learned at school.

4.5.1. (A) Leadership can only be learned through life experience

Two girls have had to cope with complicated social situations and conveyed being socially isolated and excluded over a long period of time at an early age. Only in their teen years did they seem to find a secure social place for themselves, and today they admit they have come a long way emotionally. These girls clearly stated that school plays a marginal part in developing leadership.

Let me tell you. It’s exactly like street wits and book knowledge. For me, it splits in two. Some people learn firsthand, and others in class, on the blackboard. Does it matter? Does a smart person have more experience? Hardly. There is a difference between leadership on the blackboard and learning it through life. School might give you stabilization, the push, the program, but I don’t think it teaches you. It should be within yourself. You should own this ability.

(Student 9)

I think you can get leadership skills and traits that can help you in life as a grown man, as a grown-up person with a mortgage and finance and a house and life of his own. But I think the place that provides you with most of the skills you need to move on is your own life, actually. Nowhere else. The things you’re going through, the things you feel are really … experience. We’re little now, right? If we make mistakes, correct our wrong answers, be wrong and succeed … as soon as we go through things like falling in love many times, taking the wrong bus, then we won’t need to guess. We will just know. It’s never too late to learn, and a person that hasn’t been through a lot in life can complete the knowledge he needs from school.

(Student 4)

These girls consider school to be a secondary factor in leadership development. They stress words such as “experience” and “learning … through life” as opposed to “blackboard”, “street wits” over “book knowledge”, and learning from “wrong answers”. The meaning these girls give to the way leadership should be learned has a lot to do with critical thinking about school and its role in shaping their identity. They seem to trust themselves and their own personal struggle as young women who took the initiative, became stronger and improved their life on their own.

4.5.2. (B) Leadership can be learned at school

The other 12 interviewees expressed explicit support for the school’s duty to develop leadership skills, initiate leadership programs and enable discussions on male and female leaders. It should be noted that most of them doubted the school’s capability to actually do it and pointed out the difficulties and obstacles that can cause these efforts to fail, such as unqualified staff, teachers lacking charisma, reluctant students and an unwillingness to cooperate. Nevertheless, a generally positive approach was conveyed toward such an educational process, and the girls showed a great interest in participating in empowering leadership programs that are aimed at providing them with leadership tools both now and as future adults. Two students even stated that leadership programs are much more important than the traditional subjects they learn in school.

School is a place that has many students. You can make many small changes to it. I think school is a place for teaching. We should learn things beyond science or math, we should learn things for life. I think it’s the ideal place to learn what leadership is, to lead others and to know your own point of view and stand up for it. I think it’s the place for it because it’s an environment with so many kids, and they come across so many situations where there are arguments on certain stuff, whether in the classroom, especially in civics lessons, or during recess.

(Student 1)

If there was a leadership lesson, or something like that, then self-confidence could be developed. Let people stand in front of an audience and speak about things. And then, from one lesson to the next, they are going to feel more comfortable. There are a lot of things, say, in language lessons, that aren’t relevant, and I don’t understand why we’re studying them. I think I’d be happier if they taught me how to speak correctly, how to be more fluent, in confidence, in charisma, which is a skill. Learning all kinds of verbs and their verbal stems isn’t helping us in any way. A lot of my friends think that it’s a total miss, instead of teaching us how to speak at a job interview, how to be confident.

(Student 10)

Subjects such as science, math and language are often perceived as irrelevant to girls and to teenagers in general. Lessons “for life”, gaining the ability to succeed in a job interview, developing a charismatic personality, mastering fluent and eloquent speech, and withstanding difficult situations all seem to be highly important from the interviewees’ perspectives. Most of them pointed in one way or another to the future and their concern about what it holds. They expressed a yearning for knowledge and information dealing with their future lives and providing them with the means to accomplish their goals and overcome obstacles.

5. Discussion

Youth leadership theories belong to the field of youth development, that is—the processes in which youngsters acquire skills, knowledge, and understandings that enable them to participate effectively in civic engagement and shape their ability to perform successfully as members of the community. The essence of these programs is to allow boys and girls to experience meaningful participation in social undertakings. This kind of activity gives them the opportunity to practice their skills at the individual level as well as the community or national level. The implementation of cognitive skills, which are so essential for leadership abilities, relies to a large extent on one’s self-confidence and self-esteem (Ashford & DeRue, 2012; Gould & Voelker, 2012; Kress, 2006; USAID [United States Agency for International Development], 2012). Self-confidence and self-esteem often dictate the level to which a young boy or girl will grow up to be a leader. Hence, programs that develop self-esteem help young people to engage in self-reflection, to examine their thoughts, their feelings, and their social behavior (Leutenberg & Liptak, 2011).

However, studies that concentrate on the way a leader’s personality is formed seldom focus on the way female leadership is developed throughout post-primary school years. Despite the vast scholarship about the centrality of leadership development in schools and the need for additional investment in this field through the framework of different models, in practice, advancing leadership among teenagers in Israel is apparently done within informal education, where there are more opportunities to acquire leadership skills. Any reference to this issue must consider the uniqueness of girls’ emotional and behavioral states during puberty. At this age, gender identity is formed physically as well as socially, and teenage girls become aware of traditional gender roles. Hence, there is a special effect in developing their sense of leadership in the context of post-primary education.

Consequently, this research set out to examine both the ways post-primary schools’ efforts to develop leadership are conceived by teenage girls and their experiences during this process, taking Israel as a case study. To understand the way teenage girls in Israel perceive their experiences of leadership in school, we asked the interviewees how they conceptualized leadership and how they perceived themselves and others as leaders.

Five main themes arose from the girls’ interviews: (1) they see leaders as people who are tolerant of others; (2) they see self-confidence as a key element in leadership and sense that they lack it; (3) they believe that implementing the knowledge they have acquired in leadership programs is impossible; (4) they indicate an absence of role models and mentors among teachers and staff; and (5) their opinions of their school as a leadership development establishment are irresolute.

Two main assumptions define this research. The first is the acknowledgment that post-primary school has a major influence over adolescents and has a significant ability to instill values, motivation and leadership skills. School is a meaningful aspect in the process of shaping the character of young men and women and has the ability to encourage critical thinking, civil perception and democratic values and carry out leadership programs. The second assertion is that during adolescence, teenage girls try to settle a contradiction between two main social aspects that form their identity: the social expectation for conformism with regard to gender roles versus independence aspirations and speaking with their own personal voice. Into this tension enters, among other things, the field of leadership, which is mostly perceived as masculine, competitive, aggressive and overachieving, therefore undermining the girls’ inclination to participate in it.

During adolescence, leadership plays a significant role in processes of empowerment, in a strong sense of the “self”, in developing self-confidence and in creating opportunities for teenagers to express their opinions and affect their everyday lives. Each and every boy or girl can be a leader as long as they are provided with the necessary tools and skills to do that, and school is one of the most central social institutions for realizing this potential.

Gendered social stereotypes, as well as socially constructed mechanisms women experience and often accept as a fundamental truth, have led to a female minority in politics, finance and industry management. Thus, empowering young women through leadership development education, providing techniques for leading, making decisions, setting goals and achieving them is of great importance. Post-primary school leadership education, specifically intended for teenage girls, has a major influence on character building and personal skills development that might serve as a solid foundation for leadership abilities for these girls as adults establishing their careers.

The Ministry of Education in Israel attributes great importance to leadership development, and therefore it initiates many leadership programs directed at all students, regardless of their gender. The girls who were interviewed for this study participate in at least one of these programs and allowed us a glimpse of the meaning they themselves give to the practices their schools implement in the context of leadership.

The results of this study point to different dimensions of self-perceptions of leadership among teenage girls on the one hand and to the complex way they perceive school as an educating establishment on the other. On a personal level, and in line with other studies (Archard, 2013; Karagianni & Montgomery, 2018; McNae, 2011), it seems that they are aware of the traits and skills required of leaders. They describe features like charisma, resourcefulness, setting goals and achieving them, courage, teamwork, decision-making ability, intelligence and assertiveness. They emphasize the ability of a leader to listen to his or her followers as a crucial element and that this helps us understand how interpersonal interaction and tolerance are unavoidable for a group to accomplish its objectives. The students consider themselves as having these features, and while some do not function as leaders now, they all believe in their potential to become one in the future. This finding correlates with the work of Day and Dragoni (2015), which emphasized self-belief in leadership abilities when needed as an important component in demonstrating enhanced effectiveness as a leader. Thus, alongside the important practical implication, this study strengthens also other scholarly works on its major topics and establishes the theories relating to self-confidence, self-esteem, personally acquired skills, and leadership.

A disappointing finding, however, is their lack of knowledge and awareness of male and especially female leaders. Most of them could not name more than three male leaders, all Israeli Zionists from recent years, and one female leader, Golda Meir, while others could not name any. In the context of Van Linden and Fertman’s (1998), these girls are still in stage one: not enough information has been given to them about leadership or leading figures by their school, and while they seem to feel like they can be leaders, they are not yet aware of the range of leadership behaviors and mostly consider this to be taking control over a group and telling their teammates what to do.

Expressing a firm statement as to their ability to lead was, for most of them, equivalent to declaring having self-confidence (Chan, 2003; Hoyt & Kennedy, 2008; Segovia-Pérez et al., 2021). Some attributed it to the program they attended while at the same time making a much more gloomy argument when they described their female peers as lacking self-confidence (Archard, 2012a; Skelton, 2010). They portrayed situations in which girls stay silent in class and do their best not to stand out in case they trigger laughter or ridicule from boys. These findings raise the question of whether high self-confidence is a result of leadership programs, personality element effects, or other meaningful socialization factors in their lives. It is also possible that such claims of high self-confidence were, in fact, the desire of the interviewees to please the interviewer by claiming what they thought suited the purpose of the research. Still, from a theoretical perspective, as explained by Van Linden and Fertman’s (1998), this theme is in line with stage one of leadership development. The interviewees gained some awareness of their ability to lead by participating in programs that helped build self-confidence but did not express any willingness to take that to another level and see themselves and be seen by others as active participants in leadership interactions.

Although they appreciate the efforts their school makes in order to instill virtues such as leadership, the students seem to be disappointed in them and claim that leadership programs should have been guided differently. When experiencing the programs and participating in the activities they offer, it appears the girls feel contentment, pleasure, and as though they are really absorbing leadership skills. Yet, they doubt the possibility of actually implementing what they have learned in everyday life and creating change in the school environment. This finding contrasts with prior studies that highlight the positive effects of such programs (Archard, 2013; Chan, 2003; Hoyt & Kennedy, 2008; Karagianni & Montgomery, 2018; McNae, 2011; Wong et al., 2012). Similarly, the girls explain that “education lessons”, where leadership, social responsibility and accomplishing goals are often mentioned, are boring and are taught in an ineffective and non-experimental way. However, two programs (the “Young guides” and the “Nachshon project”) differ from the others since students describe them as empowering, enriching and motivating actual leadership activity. From their point of view, these two programs provide a much better starting point for their personal leadership development compared to students who do not participate in them.

Adults act as important role models for adolescent girls during the leadership development process (Archard, 2012b; Fulton et al., 2019; Zeldin et al., 2016). However, the findings from this research suggest a lack of role models in the girls’ schools. Apparently, they seem to find it hard to look up to members of staff, even if they occupy key roles or positions. They also detected an uncaring attitude among the teachers and a reluctance to perform more duties than the minimum required. They do praise one teacher or another for their ability to be sensitive to the students’ needs, offer help in understanding the material, provide methods to memorize information, or teach in an interesting way, but none of them are perceived as being able to truly lead and motivate students to realize their potential.

In the students’ view, no teacher is found to set an example or be a role model for what a leader should be. Even if adolescents think they can work on their own as leaders in a small-scale project or during classes and leading activities, they still need adults’ support and guidance (Van Linden & Fertman, 1998). This is a crucial element during stage two of the leadership development program, let alone at stage one, the current stage of most of the girls interviewed. Additionally, despite the purported advantage post-primary school has in presenting gender equality among teachers and career options, exemplified by leading female members of staff, students’ perspectives do not seem to be consistent with this assumption.

The interviews also highlighted a serious need for tools to cope with challenges during adolescence and adulthood. Most of the students refer to the school as the ideal arena to provide these tools since it is a central institution in which they spend numerous hours and because teenagers face countless challenging situations within its walls. School is also where teenagers have the greatest contact with peers and where they can learn a lot about leadership from teachers (Van Linden & Fertman, 1998). However, some doubt their teachers’ capability to implement leadership programs, given the format of the current education system and their lessons. Therefore, they stress the necessity of activating external programs that would increase interest and efficiency as well as genuine intentions and thorough considerations within the school, such as formal lessons addressing the subject of leadership. This attitude has a significant practical implication because it highlights both the advantage of the school system as well as its flaws. If educators realize the trust that interviewees express regarding school as the appropriate framework for leadership development alongside the doubts concerning some of the teachers’ capabilities to accomplish the task, then an important framework for future programs in schools can be constructed accordingly.

Alongside this approach, a minority view of life experience as the best education for building a leader’s character was displayed. This idea was represented by girls claiming to have done this themselves, being empowered by self-motivation as a way to overcome difficult social situations.

6. Conclusions

The aim of this research was to examine how adolescent girls in middle and high schools in Israel consider the effectiveness of the efforts invested by the public education system to provide leadership skills and traits. It has discussed whether these efforts fit the girls’ needs and take their points of view into consideration. This research suggests that school has an essential role in character-building and in creating a solid foundation for leadership among youth in general and particularly among young girls. The study also shows how school significantly influences young women’s beliefs and comprehension of leadership. School has an important role in supplying the educational infrastructure through which girls learn to believe in their ability to lead; it forms the framework for their acquisition of the necessary means to achieve their leadership goals.

To obtain a more comprehensive observation of these elements, further research must be performed that includes teenage girls who attend religious schools in Israel, as well as girls from different socioeconomic backgrounds. Combining quantitative data gathered from large-scale research might expand knowledge on the effect of schools on shaping and developing leadership traits among female teenagers. There is a high probability that such analysis will enable the primacy of the school factor and the influence it has on molding the female leaders of tomorrow over all other variables during adolescence to be seen. Hopefully, it will provide policymakers within the educational establishment in Israel with the required information as to the best way leadership development should be carried out while at the same time enhancing self-efficacy and empowering teenage girls.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).