Between teacher’ roles and students’ social: Learner autonomy in online learning for EFL students during the pandemic

Abstract

The study’s objectives were to determine how students’ capacity of autonomy and its influencing factors promote student autonomy in online learning during a pandemic. It was a qualitative design, and the participants were twenty-five students enrolled in an English Language Teaching Methods course at one of Indonesia’s public universities, in Surabaya. The data were collected via online survey and interview. Descriptive statistics, reduction and verification were used to analyze them. The results indicated that the capacity of EFL student teachers during online learning was moderate. Although students could engage in self-direction, self-instruction, and self-access, the instruction’ role was still required since learner autonomy should be taught incrementally to foster their autonomy. Next, motivation and collaboration were the most influential determinants of students’ autonomy. When students are motivated, they would have responsibility to study to attain their goal. Thus, the teacher provides numerous collaborative activities and strategies that promote students’ active learning during online learning. Collaboration offers more opportunities to acquire the necessary complex skills. Online learning actively encourages and complements students to access information, and facilitate independent learning. For findings that are more generalizable, it is suggested that additional research be conducted with larger samples or additional instruments.

Keywords:

• learner autonomy
• motivation
• online-learning
• collaboration

Public Interest Statement

Learner autonomy plays a crucial aspect in online education that enables English teacher candidate for taking charge of their learning process, setting their goal, planning their study, evaluating their progress and selecting appropriate materials. This can help them become more skilled and qualified English instructors.

In addition, it prepares prospective English teachers for future challenges and enhances their professional success so that they become more adaptable and responsive educators. Overall, all students require independent learning for both online and offline learning. It encourages them to be lifelong learners and to become stronger, more competent, and more adaptable individuals. It is the responsibility of educators to equip students with a variety of independent learning strategies.

Introduction

Learner autonomy has emerged as a central concern in recent language teaching history, particularly in the digital age. When students are autonomous learners, they have responsible for achieving their educational objectives (Benson & Voller, 2014; Tseng et al., 2019) and controlling their learning process. Learners must decide what they want to learn, how they want to learn it, and at what pace. This principle is very applicable to online learning, which necessitates learning autonomy, because students must manage their own learning process, including setting their schedules, organizing their resources, and taking the initiative to seek assistance when it is needed (Little, 1996). So, by having learner autonomy, students can identify their assets and weaknesses and make adjustments to their learning strategies accordingly. Students require learner autonomy in online environment since it can promote active learning that encourage them to take an active role in shaping their learning experiences (Rahimi & Yadollahi, 2017). It also prepares students for a process of lifelong learning that enables them to continue learning outside of the classroom and throughout their lives (Aksela, 2005). Thus, learners become independent person who can direct and initiate their own education, students could successfully manage their time. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate how to promote learner autonomy in online learning during a pandemic among Indonesian university-level English students.

However, it is well known that learner autonomy is not yet a concept in Indonesian education. This is due to several factors, including culture, dearth of access to resources and technologies, family, and environment. Indonesian culture influences the autonomy of students. It is common knowledge that the educational culture in Indonesia is authoritarian, with an emphasis on hierarchy and instructors as the primary source of knowledge (Tathahira, 2020). In a hierarchical culture, students must always revere their elders. Teachers are viewed as a superior class that must be respected by students, whereas students are viewed as inferiors who must submit to the authority of the teacher (Indah & Kusuma, 2016). Next, because students are dependent on their instructor, the teaching and learning process remains teacher-centered and teacher-dominated, with fewer opportunities for students to develop their knowledge (Chan, 2010; Cirocki et al., 2019). Students frequently believe that the teacher is solely a source of knowledge or information who constantly imparts it. In the end, students become recipients and passive learners who have no desire to study cooperatively to develop their independence.

Furthermore, many students in Indonesia do not have access to the technology required for independent learning, such as internet access and computer equipment. Access to the internet is difficult for students in Indonesia due to a variety of factors, including the uneven distribution of infrastructure throughout the country. Next, the limitations of devices such as smartphones and laptops, as well as the cost of internet access, which is still relatively costly. Internet access and devices are prohibitively expensive, particularly for low-income families. The final factor is the lack of family and community support students’ autonomy. Many parents in Indonesia have the lack of digital literacy that affecting their autonomy. Thus, students are unfamiliar with technology and lack the necessary skills to use the internet for educational purposes. Nevertheless, the existence of COVID-19 necessitated online education in Indonesia to maintain the caliber of education. Thus, to avoid the spread of the COVID-19 virus, instructors must switch from face-to-face to online learning due to the existence of Covid-19. Obviously, this shift in the implementation of learning poses a challenge for Indonesian educators. They must transform their formerly teacher-centered teaching style into student-centered activities. Instructors should encourage students to be autonomous learners in online learning, despite their lack of experience in this area. Hence, it is a challenge for instructors to transform students into independent online learners despite their limited prior experience with these practices.

Therefore, greater student and community awareness of the significance of learner autonomy in the teaching and learning process is required. To promote student autonomy in synchronous and asynchronous online learning, the instructor should redesign new classroom teaching and learning techniques (Ogbonna et al., 2019). Utilizing student-centered learning could motivate students to actively participate in the learning process and empower them to determine their own learning objectives (Reinders & White, 2016). As students study with little teacher supervision during online activities, the teacher should provide them with activities, instructions, learning materials, and tasks that allow them to be more independent and to exercise greater control and initiative over their learning. In addition, it is essential to provide students with adequate technological resources and accessibility, as well as an environment that encourages independent learning and creativity (Carmichael & Farrell, 2012). Consequently, as a result of an adaptive learning variation implemented in contemporary teaching and learning practices, students should speedily adapt to assume responsibility for their learning and participate actively and independently.

Diverse empirical investigations have been conducted on the autonomy of language learners from a variety of online learning perspectives. First, blogs could increase learner autonomy in Indian universities because they encourage independence and creativity among students (Bhattacharya & Chauhan, 2010). Next, the use of CALL and a Self-Access Centre could enhance Japanese students’ motivation, autonomous planning, organization, tracking, and evaluation (Smith & Craig, 2013). Then, González (2009) asserted that the European Language Portfolio (ELP) assessment could enhance students’ autonomy and language-learning knowledge. Additionally Humphreys and Wyatt (2014) asserted that a learning journal in a social setting could promote learner autonomy among Vietnamese university students.

The findings of the previous study indicate that the use of technology, particularly asynchronous learning, can promote student’ autonomy in a variety of nations. However, literature review reveals a dearth of research on how learner autonomy is shaped in full online learning environments, particularly in Indonesia. The purpose of this study is to fill a gap in the literature by investigating learner autonomy in online mode among English student-teachers in Indonesia. First, this is their first experience with fully online learning, and technology and learning teacher autonomy are intertwined. Based on Little’s theory, English education majors will then produce teacher candidates charged with providing strategies, explicit instruction, and scaffolding to help their students become independent learners. Thus, the research questions are as follows: (1) How can online education foster learner autonomy? (2) What factors can impact learner autonomy in online education?

This research was limited to students presently enrolled in the ELT Methods course and was conducted both synchronously and asynchronously online in order to answer the two formulations of the problem. The research method employed qualitative since it could describe the natural conditions of students’ autonomy in online learning. Due to the limitations of students with devices and data plans, the number of participants in this study was extremely low. Participants with devices and data plans could engage in this research.

This research contributes significantly to both theory and practice. Theoretically, the study could construct online learning models to increase student-teacher learning motivation and independence. In a more pragmatic sense, the study helps educators in developing appropriate curricula and establishing optimal learning environments. Learner autonomy should be incorporated into the learning process since constructive learning process could encourage student’ autonomy. Employing strategies and providing gradual guidance can foster students’ independent learning.

Literature Review

Learner Independence and Online Education

Learner autonomy refers to a student’s readiness and ability to take responsibility for his or her own learning, as well as a potential capacity to act in a learning situation (Benson, 2007). It signifies that students can decide how to complete their tasks, monitor their progress, and evaluate their learning with the assistance of the teacher. Learner autonomy is one of the educational objectives designed to produce autonomous lifelong students (Howlett & Waemusa, 2019). Therefore, learner autonomy can be monitored in three ways: 1) self-instruction, which refers to determining the idea, making the decision, and completing the task individually or in a group, demonstrates that learner autonomy entails taking responsibility for determining the purpose; 2) self-direction, which refers to determining the concept, making the decision, and completing the 2) self-direction that includes monitoring its progress and evaluating its results, as well as implementing a rhythm and method of learning 3) self-access, which refers to an individual’s initiative in locating diverse sources (Little, 1996). Consequently, learner autonomy emphasizes the psychological dimension of his learning process and content. It indicates that learner autonomy has focused on the cognitive and behavioral characteristics of the learners (Benson, 2007; Zainuddin et al., 2019). Cognitive elements pertain to the learner’s awareness, perception, or reflection on learning or motivation, whereas behavioral aspects are concerned with learning actions and strategies.

Given the multifaceted nature of learner autonomy, it provides new perspectives on learner autonomy. In the current study, the concept of learner autonomy refers to a set of independent learner attributes, such as motivation, decision-making, goal-setting, monitoring their progress and critically evaluating outcomes, selecting and applying appropriate learning strategies, becoming fully involved in collaborative practices, seeking guidance from peers and teachers alike, and reflecting on their learning experiences in order to determine their next steps.

With the advent of technology, students have unprecedented opportunities to engage in independent study (Tran & Duong, 2020). Ogbonna et al. (2019) have also supported the notion that online learning emphasizes Internet-based courses offered synchronously and asynchronously, in which students can initiate discussions with their teachers or other students at any time of the day and from a variety of locations, as opposed to only during office hours. It significantly increased student-teacher and student-student communication (Dang & Robertson, 2010). In online learning mode, students have synchronous, asynchronous, or both access to the instructor (Richardson et al., 2020).

Asynchronous learning is a form of indirect learning (it is not face-to-face and it is not in real time). Technologies such as Moodle, email, web-blog, Blackboard, MOOCs, WhatsApp, telegram, etc. have increased learners’ access to learning in their own time and place (Zhong, 2018). Other related asynchronous online tools, such as discussion forums and online chat environments, provide language learners with opportunities for social, collaborative, and authentic learning in which they can share responsibility for their education and work collaboratively. It can boost their confidence and motivation because they can learn anywhere.

In addition, educational technologies expose English student teachers to a digital social environment in which they can engage in meaningful interactions with real-world individuals. Even if geographically separated, it is now possible to communicate in real time through videoconferencing software (zoom meeting, google meet, or big blue button); this is known as synchronous learning. It is a form of learning with direct interaction between students and teachers simultaneously but in different places to hold a virtual meeting. Thus, online learning allows students to effectively manage their time in accordance with their educational needs (Dashtestani, 2020; Reinders & White, 2016).

Strategies for Promoting Learner Autonomy in Online Education

While technologies have the potential to enable learners to engage in autonomous learning and drive a shift away from learners being passive recipients of content knowledge, the teacher plays a greater role in promoting students’ autonomy in an online learning environment (Lai et al., 2016). Benson (2007) argues that autonomy is not a finished product, but rather a process, as it is attained when certain conditions are met. Therefore, teachers must facilitate and provide scaffolding for students to become autonomous online learners. The instructor should instruct students on how to implement strategies for self-regulation in order to foster learner autonomy. If students are self-regulated in online learning, they can establish objectives, define content, select methods and techniques, monitor procedures, and assess learning processes (Almusharraf, 2020; de Goulão & Menedez, 2015). Therefore, providing appropriate educational aids can help learners construct their knowledge or information and foster their autonomy (de Goulão & Menedez, 2015).

Moreover, students should be motivated to learn and enjoy the process of learning (Maulana et al., 2016). When students are more engaged and empowered to assume responsibility for their learning, they will be able to direct their own learning (Godwin-Jones, 2019). They were able to find appropriate learning strategies to attain their competency/goal. Consequently, active learning is a central component of online learning to encourage students to assume responsibility for and control their own learning process, given that all learning resources must be provided via the internet.

Metacognition is one of the most effective strategies for fostering learner autonomy when it comes to constructing self-assessment components after each section, log-in session, or specific exercise in online learning (Bajrami, 2015). When students have applied self-evaluation, they have the initiative to learn with minimal guidance from the teacher. They were intrinsically motivated to study in order to achieve their objective. Thus, motivation is a crucial factor in fostering students’ autonomy (Borg & Alshumaimeri, 2019).

Moreover, self-directed learning is a process in which individuals assess their learning requirements, articulate their objectives, select and implement appropriate strategies, and assess their learning outcomes (Zhang, 2010). It could assist students in developing their weaknesses and strengths in order to reduce their reliance on the teacher. Self-directed learning enables students to take charge of their online learning to increase their efficacy, given that they can learn at any time and from any location. Moreover, research indicates that peer assessment can be used to promote self-directed learning (Zainuddin & Perera, 2018), which provides the opportunity for students to exchange knowledge and ask questions of their peers.

Working in group coordination could promote learner autonomy because learners enjoy activities such as group communication and peer evaluation (Bhattacharya & Chauhan, 2010). They could take pleasure in the process of learning, and they are unafraid to voice their opinion. Thus, collaboration promotes the autonomy of students in terms of their ability to make decisions. The development of constructed knowledge and language skills can be enhanced if students are able to make independent language-related decisions with a certain degree of confidence (Borg & Alshumaimeri, 2019).

Collaboration is one of the 21st-century skills developed through online education because it offers more opportunities to acquire the complex skills necessary to collaborate effectively with others (Osborne et al., 2018). New technology actively encourages and complements students to access information, streamline administration, and facilitate learning in novel ways (Lin et al., 2016). Regarding this issue, the following research question has been proposed: (1) How can online learning be used to investigate the autonomy of students? (2) What factors can impact learner autonomy in a virtual learning environment?

Methodology

The research design was qualitative because the objectives were to describe how online learning promotes learner autonomy and investigate factors that influence student autonomy in online learning environment during the pandemic, Covid 19. It was the first time that EFL teacher students had a comprehensive online learning experience, so the case study research method was utilized. The study’s exploratory nature aimed to provide a comprehensive understanding of learner autonomy. The richness and depth of the data generated by this study would advance our understanding of the investigated phenomenon and lead to a thorough understanding of the subject in question (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007).

Participants and Setting

This study was conducted in the English Education Department, one of Surabaya, Indonesia’s public universities, offering online courses during the COVID-19 pandemic. The participants were 25 English student-teachers enrolled in the English Language Teaching Method course. They were 15 female and 10 male participants and ranged in age from 18 to 19 years old. The selection of participants was based on purposive sampling, which was adapted based on the research objectives or other criteria desired by the researcher. Researchers selected samples believed to be representative of the population under investigation (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007; Rinto & Cogbill-Seiders, 2015). The criteria for participants were: 1) possess devices and internet quota, 2) be able to use online learning. Due to this criteria, the number of participants in this study was extremely low. They, then, were expected to collaboratively analyze various English methods and demonstrate appropriate methods for teaching language skills and English components to particular audiences. It was a weekly 4-hour class that spanned 15 sessions. During the online learning environment, synchronous (Zoom meetings) and asynchronous (Google Classroom) classes supported the learners’ independent study. Before class began, every resource had been uploaded to Google Classroom (GC). The GC requires students to read all materials, create mind maps, respond to questions, and complete group assignments. The instructor has also provided students with guidance regarding their responsibilities in an asynchronous class. At this point, all students must prepare to study and read all materials. In the main room, the students presented their work during a virtual meeting (zoom session). The students then collaborated in breakout rooms to discuss the materials they had selected, while the instructor monitored their activities. If students did not understand materials, they could ask to their instructor. When the class ended, the students must fill the exit ticket to knowing whether the students understand or not.

Instruments and Data Collection

To answer both research concerns, questionnaires and interviews were utilized. Adapting Little’s (1996) model, the questionnaire utilized was a Likert scale. The questionnaire was constructed using a five-point Likert scale spanning from 1 (“Strongly Disagree”) to 5 (“Strongly Agree”). The questionnaire used to respond research question number 1 described the students’ capacity for learner autonomy. Item in the questionnaire were categorized into 2 domains as follow:

• Items 1 to 8 identified students’ self-direction

• Items 9 to 12 identified students’ self instruction

• Items 13 to 15 identified students’ self-access

• Items 16 to 22 identified students’ motivation

• Items 23 to 28 identified students’ collaboration

Before conducting interviews, researchers prepared a number of open-ended queries to collect data on independent learning in online education. This section contains a list of queries.

1. Do you always establish learning objectives? Why?

2. Why is it necessary to have a plan for learning?

3. Please mention what kinds of methods are utilized to determine your strength and weaknesses?

4. Do you always search for learning-related information on the internet? Why?

5. What is your motivation to participate in online learning?

6. Why is teamwork essential for online learning?

In this study, only six participants were selected for interviews because they possessed predetermined characteristics, such as devices for online learning, data bundles for online learning, and a willingness to participate in interviews. They were also accustomed to online learning and only six of the participants desired an interview.

In addition, the interview consisted of a guided and informal conversation designed to elicit additional information about specific topics discussed in the guided interview. We conducted semi-structured online interviews with each of the six participants, which lasted approximately 15 to 20 minutes. The interview was conducted in English, but participants could speak in Bahasa Indonesia if they could articulate learning autonomy, their strengths and weaknesses, and their motivation clearly.

Data Analysis

Using descriptive statistics, the data were analyzed to describe the outcomes of learner autonomy. Key averages were used to determine the level of students’ independence, motivation, and collaboration. It was 2.49 or less for low, 2.5–3.49 for medium, and 3.5–5.0 for high. It was a useful tool for assessing students’ independence in university level.

Data analysis consisted of data reduction and verification of findings. We listened to the interview recording and transcripts numerous times (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007). Each participant’s transcript was carefully read and coded using inductive analysis procedures to assure accurate interpretation of emerging patterns and themes. The results were then presented to the participants for comments. Then, we scanned, coded, and analyzed the documents for explicit and implicit mentions of learner autonomy issues (Little, 1996). Little (1996) states that the transcripts were coded for both explicit and implicit references to learner autonomy and factors that influence learner autonomy. Explicit references include phrases such as “autonomy” and “motivation”, whereas implicit references were coded when speakers constructed learner autonomy and its factors “without stating or naming them directly”. The occurrences of the identity roles were then counted, but role claims that occurred infrequently (less than three occurrences and in passing) were disregarded.

Triangulation was employed to ensure the reliability of the findings (Bogdan & Biklen, 2007) to establish the validity of the findings. During data triangulation, evidence was compared and crosschecked with other evidence (such as comparing the researchers’ result of questionnaire and audio recording transcripts of interview transcripts).

Findings

This study aimed to investigate how online environments have fostered learner autonomy and the factors that influence it. To investigate students’ activities that promote their autonomy in an online learning environment, learners must demonstrate their capacity to act independently through multiple activities. Table 1 demonstrates that students’ capacity to act independently in online environment.

Table 1. Students’ capacity to act independently

Items	M	SD	Category
Self-Direction
Taking an initiative in ELT Course during online learning	3.16	0.943	Medium
Setting goals in online learning in ELT Methods course	2.48	1,295	Low
Planning their studying in online learning Arranging schedule to study in online learning	3.28 2.96	0.678 0.841	Medium Medium
Conducting self-assessment their work before submitting	3.32	0.690	Medium
Conducting peer-assessment before submitting	3.04	0.735	Medium
Identifying strength during online learning	2.92	0.954	Medium
Identifying weakness during online learning	2.88	0.927	Medium
Self-instruction
Providing many activities in online learning	3.60	.931	High
Providing assignments/project in online learning	3.16	.688	Medium
Giving feedback helping learner autonomy in online learning	3.56	1.003	High
Providing opportunities to work in group in online learning	3.36	.810	Medium
Self-Access
Providing many resources in online learning	3.40	.707	Medium
Reading many resources in online learning	3.00	.707	Medium
Taking notes before joining online learning	2.48	1.388	Low
Average	3.20

Table 1 reveals that the level of students’ capacity to act independently among English language learners is still moderate (N = 25, M = 3.28) in terms of self-direction, self-instruction, and self-accessibility. Students are not accustomed to taking initiative and being responsible for their own learning because the Indonesian education system is still teacher-centered. In addition, the culture of learning in Indonesia is still centered on aspects of memorization and attaining high academic scores, so that students are more concerned with pursuing grades than gaining a deeper understanding. This can diminish the desire to study independently. Thirdly, Indonesian students have limited access to reading materials, technology, and other resources necessary for independent study. In addition to environmental factors, family and peers are less supportive of the development of an independent learning culture.

In addition to these observations, Table 2 explains the results of interviews with six participants regarding how online learning encourages their autonomy. Learner autonomy can be assessed by a student’s independence in an online environment. In Indonesia, online education still requires teacher feedback (6 occurrences). This indicates that teachers continue to dominate the Indonesian educational system. Internet connectivity causes the greatest difficulties when pupils work in groups (3 occurrences).

Table 2. Indices of students autonomy

Category	Practical of learner autonomy
Self-Direction Goal (3) Initiative (4) planning (3) schedule (2) self assessment (5) peer-assessment (4) strength (2) Weakness (1)	I determine learning goals to study ELT Methods I also take the initiative to learn … . I plan to study by reading the points I do not have fixed schedule I will review my work before I submit it I think it is useful when I give some feedback toward other’s group Filling out the exit ticket helps to find out my strength Filling out the exit ticket helps to find out my weakness
Self- instruction assignments/projects (5) Group work (3) Teacher’ feedback (6)	I prefer my lecturer explained all material, so I can understand rather than giving assignment or project I prefer to work in group however internet connection is the biggest problem to discuss I need teacher’ feedback to improve my work and … sometimes, I follow her instruction to revise my work
Self-access Providing many resources (5) Reading many resources (3) Taking notes (1)	I do not only read the materials (books, PPT) in GC but also I find other resources in internet Although I have downloaded the materials from GC and another website I only read them when I have spare time and I have a good mood and the duration is about 30 minutes I understand the materials by making note-taking to help me to understand the materials easily

The fact demonstrates that although online learning provides many resources (5 occurrences), students do not have any habit of writing summary due to their lack of reading (3 occurrences). They prefer to attend to lectures over reading independently. Students only read material for thirty minutes, before joining the virtual class.

Motivational and Collaboration Factors Influencing the Autonomy of Online Student

Having explained that the students’ autonomy was moderate because it was their first time participating in online learning. Several factors can influence the autonomy of online learners. Their autonomy has been most significantly influenced by their motivation. Motivated students would be interested in learning without external pressure because they view education as a means of achieving their predetermined goals. As motivation is associated with a variety of significant learning outcomes, it should be considered in the online learning environment. Table 3 outlines the motivations for achieving their objectives through online learning.

Table 3. Students’ online learning motivation

Items	M	SD	Category
Increasing excitement to learn	3.16	.943	Medium
Improving confidence in online learning	4.61	.746	High
Helping to achieve get score	3.44	1.121	Medium
Motivating to pass exams	3.96	1.274	High
Motivating to achieve their idea to be a teacher	3.44	.712	Medium
Motivating me to praise their parents	3.28	.678	Medium
Improving their creativity in online learning	2.28	2.400	Low

The data in Table 3 indicate that online students are highly motivated. They reported that online education enhances their knowledge (N = 25, M = 3.96) and self-assurance (N = 25, M = 4.61). They also expressed a desire to become teachers (N = 25, M = 3.44) and to make their parents proud (N = 25, M = 3.28) if they performed well. However, online learning cannot foster creativity among students who are learning independently (N = 25, M = 2.28).

The aforementioned data is also supported by the results of the interview, which reveal indicators or factors that influence students’ motivation in nurturing independent learning.

The results of questionnaires and interviews are nearly identical, namely that online learning can increase students’ motivation to learn because it can boost self-confidence, increase competence, and assist individuals in achieving their objectives. Unfortunately, online education does not aid in the development of students’ creative thinking abilities. This is because of their poor reading habits. Students do not have a regular reading timetable. They only read when tomorrow’s subject is relevant. In addition, a poor internet connection has a negative impact on student creativity because when instructor provides feedback in synchronous sessions (zoom meeting), students are unable to hear distinctly due to a poor internet connection, so they cannot revise their work based on their teacher’ feedback. Due to the fact that students in a particular online course had a limited amount of time to contact their instructor, time management advice was incorporated into the learning instruction.

Collaboration is an additional factor that affects learner autonomy in online mode, as students’ group work in the ELT Methods course can increase their autonomy. The online collaboration of the students was summarized in Table 4. According to the results of a survey (N = 25, M = 3.32), students preferred group work over individual work in a virtual environment. To enhance their knowledge, they also adopt and compare their learning strategies in asynchronous learning (N = 25, M = 3.64). In addition, they intended to collect peer feedback online (N = 25, M = 3.04). They believed that all social strategies utilized in online education could improve communication and collaboration (N = 25, M = 3.28). Based on the results of interviews, table 5 demonstrates a number of factors that affect students' motivation during online learning.

Table 4. Factors students’ motivation in online learning

Category	Practical of learner autonomy
confidence (6) competence (5) idea (4) creativity (1)	… online learning can improve my confidence … online learning increase my GPA and competence … make my parents happy and proud since I have idea to be a teacher or lecture … my creativity is bad because of habit and internet connection

Table 5. Students’ collaboration

Item	M	SD	Category
Synchronous online learning increase my communication with teachers and others students	1.52	.714	Low
I prefer to work in group than individual in asynchronous online learning	3.32	.945	Medium
I sometimes compare my work with other students during asynchronous online learning	3.56	.961	High
Students can help each other during online learning in this course	3.32	.802	Medium
I sometimes adopt what other students are doing into my own learning during synchronous online learning	3.64	.757	High

The outcomes of the interviews supported the findings of the survey. Fifty percent of online learners favored working in groups to working alone. The results of the interview indicate that students could collaborate for a variety of reasons, as presented in table 6. Table 6 provides additional information.

Table 6. Factors students’ collaboration in online learning

Category	Practical of learner autonomy
• exchange ideas (6)• solve problem (5)• adapt (4)• compare (5)	… I can exchange my opinions or ideas when working in group … we can solve some problems when we study in group … I adapt my friends’ learning styles to improve my ability … … I sometimes compare my work with other before we submit it”

Nonetheless, it is important to note that questionnaire revealed that online learning, particularly during synchronous learning, cannot improve students’ communication with teachers and other students (N = 25, M = 1.52). It is also supported by interview results. The results of the interview are summarized in table 7, which indicates that synchronous learning through zoom meetings requires a data bundle. The results indicate that data packages and internet connections are the greatest obstacles for students when they must present or communicate the outcomes of discussions in front of instructor or peers in online learning

Table 7. Factors students’ communication in online learning

Category	Practical of learner autonomy
• zoom session (5)• internet connection (5)• communication	… online learning, especially zoom session requires a lot of data package to communicate with the whole class” … the challenge is when we haven’t internet data and connection does not support …… . … I get difficulty to communicate with teacher and friends in online learning

Their internet connection was inadequate, preventing them from participating in synchronous sessions. Moreover, there was a fee to purchase an internet package. Lastly, students were unable to communicate effectively with their teachers, particularly during virtual meetings that required a large amount of quota data.

In concluding, online education could encourage students to share their knowledge and assist one another when they encounter difficulty. Additionally, they could discuss their work prior to submission. They could also adopt the learning styles of their peers to increase their competence. However, problem with the cost of internet packages and internet signals/connections existed in online education.

Discussion

This study revealed that among English student teachers, the level of independence among EFL students is still moderate (N = 25, M = 3.28). Self-direction plays an essential function in fostering student autonomy (Little, 1996), but students in Indonesia lacked a comprehension of how to apply the concept of self-direction, such as initiating projects and setting goals. Clearly, the absence of the term “learner autonomy” in educational discourse has led to this situation (Cirocki et al., 2019; Indah & Kusuma, 2016). The autonomous learner assumes full responsibility for planning and organizing his or her own learning (Benson, 2008; Figura & Jarvis, 2007). Students must organize their ideas, options, and classroom decisions in order to attain their objective before enrolling or joining a class (Song & Hill, 2007).

The finding exposes that students frequently set their own deadlines for learning. This indicates that students are not utilizing strategy instruction that could significantly improve their comprehension of ELT Methods materials. Boonma and Swatevacharkul (2020) reported that the use of planning and learning strategies during course activities could lead to increase student independence. Next, the result presented students only studied when they had homework or examinations to complete. They do not have any willingness to study by themselves. They are constantly influenced by their peers and follow their teacher’s instructions. So, they did not document their objective in their journal since some of them never identified their strength and weaknesses to create adjustments for their learning strategies. This dependence most likely stems from the collectivist character of the educational system in Indonesia (Maulana et al., 2016). Students adhere strictly to their teacher’ instructions. They believed that the solution proposed by their teacher was the only viable option. This study indicates that students were unfamiliar with negotiating and lacked classroom inquiry skills. Ginting et al. (2020) reported corresponding findings.

Additionally, the study found that students’ access to all internet materials demonstrated that adolescents were engaged in digital literacy practices, with the majority of their efforts being self-access (Benson, 2013; Little, 1996). Students could obtain all materials from Google Classroom and search for resources on other websites. Students’ ability to use technology for online learning is a useful tool for promoting classroom participation (Benson, 2013). It is comparable to the study by Smith and Craig (2013). Unfortunately, students still lacked motivation to read since they would learn a particular subject based on their mood due to their poor reading habits. Hence, the teacher should provide guidance that helped them with activities or instructions that allow them to be more independent. Providing students with adequate technological resources and accessibility encouraged students to be more independent learner (Carmichael & Farrell, 2012).

Furthermore, motivation is a crucial factor in achieving student autonomy through online learning (Vanslambrouck et al., 2018). Without motivation, there is no autonomy because autonomous learners are motivated (Sönmez, 2016). A high level of motivation has increased the probability that a student would engage in independent learning. There is a correlation between autonomy and motivation since motivation is also closely related to language proficiency (Kramer & Kusurkar, 2017). This study is also consistent with previous research indicating that online learning can boost student motivation, including their self-assurance, competence, and aspirations (Lai et al., 2016). In Indonesian context, motivating university students is a crucial message, so the instructor must motivate the students throughout the online learning process. Teaching support system are relevant for autonomous motivation of Indonesian students (Maulana et al., 2016)

In addition, online education could facilitate student collaboration and group interaction. Learner autonomy does not require autonomous work, according to Bhattacharya and Chauhan (2010), but rather the development of interdependence/collaboration. Individual action could result from group coordination or collaboration. The report analysis revealed that students relished group study, peer evaluation, and group coordination. Students could appreciate themselves because their classmates would aid them if they encountered difficulty. Using WhatsApp group, they were able to communicate with their peers. This finding is identical to that of Carrió-Pastor & Skorczynska’s study (Carrió-Pastor & Skorczynska, 2015), which demonstrated that communication technologies, such as online chat and shared file creation via the internet, have proven to be exceptionally motivating and beneficial in preparing students for actual job tasks. Through interaction with other learners, they could reduce their anxiety. They would have a more focused conversation about their materials. Later on, student’s collaboration appeared to have fostered autonomy since they focused on communication and task completion as their primary objective was to communicate swiftly and effectively with partners (Carrió-Pastor & Skorczynska, 2015). Students believed that team performances were the most essential aspect of peer learning. Consequently, students were able to make independent decisions regarding their own education.

Zoom sessions (virtual meetings) prevented students from actively participating in communication during online learning. Students need internet access or a data limit to participate in online learning, so the initial emphasis was on cost. It is comparable to Vanslambrouck et al. (2018), who state that cost is viewed negatively in online and blended learning. The socioeconomic and educational foundation of the family has a substantial effect on the efficacy of online learning. Due to their inability to engage in synchronous learning, individuals with limited income are disadvantaged by online education. For efficient education, the government should provide internet quotas.

The second factor was the internet connection. Some students had difficulty locating a firm signal, which hindered their capacity for effective communication. Internet connections have a substantial impact on the efficacy of online education, which is consistent with the environmental conditions of Indonesia, an archipelagic nation. As a result of the fact that some students lack Wi-Fi, cloudy weather would unavoidably lead to internet connection issues for them. They generally rely heavily on particular internet service providers. They would prefer to remain mute and not speak during online learning. Due to data and signal limitations, they did not always have the video camera on. One could argue that the success of online education required computer literacy and an ICT infrastructure (Vanslambrouck et al., 2018).

Implication demonstrated that learner autonomy cannot be attained naturally. It is the teacher’s responsibility to motivate students to become independent learners. The instructor must prioritize the development of the students over their grades. When students recognize their progress, they have made due to their efforts, they can value their learning success more than their grade. They have encouragement to develop their critical thinking and creativity by perusing all downloaded or sought-after materials to improve their digital literacy. The instructor should, therefore, guide and supervise the students’ reading habits after they have downloaded materials. The instructor should ensure that students have read and written summaries in order to comprehend the material and increase their literacy skills. Therefore, when they disagree with their teacher or peers, they can articulate their positions. When a teacher cultivates a supportive classroom environment in which students are cordial, it can increase their motivation for online learning. Motivated students are typically independent students (Sönmez, 2016). Due to the state of the Internet network and a society’s socioeconomic conditions, online learning can also contribute to educational inequality. To assure equal access to education for all students, the government must play a role in income distribution and network expansion.

Conclusion

The study revealed learner autonomy must be taught incrementally in online education for students in higher education. The instructors play a crucial role in fostering student autonomy for learning activities and scaffolding aid in the development of learner autonomy. Moreover, learner autonomy can be influenced by student motivation and collaboration during online learning. Creating a conducive online environment could stimulate students’ curiosity, collaboration, and motivation to learn in group work. Finally, students have responsibility to achieve their learning objectives. However, cost and internet connectivity are viewed as disadvantages of online learning. The socioeconomic and educational background of the family has a significant impact on the effectiveness of online learning. Due to their inability to participate in synchronous learning, low-income individuals are disadvantaged by online learning. Thus, the government must provide internet access quotas for schools to function effectively.

Due to the small sample size and limited scope of the present study, it might not be possible to generalize the findings. As the study drew on questionnaire and interview data, student teachers might deliberately display of learner autonomy activities to meet the expectations of researchers. Moreover, the study was limited to four months, making it difficult to shape their learning autonomy over time. Further research should regularly promote learner autonomy by experimenting with a variety of approaches to ensure that students’ interests and needs are fully engaged in decision-making processes. Researchers in the field of education can continue to investigate learner autonomy in the EFL classroom using larger samples or additional instruments to ensure more comprehensive data and generalizable results.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Nur Hasan M.Si., rector of UNESA, for funding this research. I would also like to thank Ibu Pratiwi Retnaningdyah, Ph.D., the head of the English department, as well as all of my friends who assisted us in completing this study.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

The work was supported by the Universitas Negeri Surabaya.

Notes on contributors

Arik Susanti

Arik Susanti is a doctorate student in the Universitas Negeri Malang and a faculty member of English Education Department in Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia. Her research interests are in the area of learner autonomy, English for Specific Purposes, language teaching and learning strategies for EFL, and the use of Information and Communication Technology in English Language Teaching.

Sri Rachmajanti

Sri Rachmajanti is a faculty member of the English Department of Universitas Negeri Malang, Indonesia. Her educational background and research interest have led her to work in the area of teaching learning English to her professorship. Her research interests are in the areas of teacher professional development, English Language Teaching, English for young learners and CALL.

Ali Mustofa

Ali Mustofa is a faculty member of English Literature Department in Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia. His research interests are in the area of English in social media, using technology in English classroom and gender equality.