Experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims in Ghana: The Perspective of digital consumers of agricultural produce

Abstract

This qualitative study explores the perspectives and experiences of digital consumers who have been victims of agricultural produce-related digital crimes. This study aims to comprehend how victims experience and deal with the impact of cybercrime, as well as their perceptions of the effectiveness of the legal and criminal justice system in addressing cybercrime, through in-depth interviews with 26 digital consumers of agricultural produce associated with cybercrime from Labone, East Legon, Dzorwulu, Roman Ridge and Cantoments in the Greater Accra Region, Ghana. Thematic analysis was used to analyze the data. Data were processed in NVivo. Based on the study findings, it was concluded that cybercrime victims endured a variety of emotional, psychological, and financial repercussions. Cybercrime has a profound emotional impact on victims with regard to feeling angry, frustrated, or violated. Victims also suffer significant financial losses, which puts them in anguish and financial difficulty. Furthermore, the study concluded that victims of cybercrime have conflicting views on how well civil and criminal justice systems work to combat it. Although some victims think that the judicial system works well for them, others believe it is slow and ineffective, which makes them feel frustrated and helpless. The study recommends the need for more effective support and assistance for victims of cybercrime with respect to digital consumers of agricultural produce. This study underscores the need for greater awareness of cybercrime, as well as more effective and efficient mechanisms for reporting, investigating, and prosecuting cybercrime.

Keywords:

• agricultural pro-duce
• cultural deviance
• cybercrime
• digital consumers
• experiences
• perceptions
• victims

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

In an increasingly interconnected world, where digital interactions shape various aspects of daily life, understanding and addressing the challenges posed by cybercrime have become critical for safeguarding individuals, businesses, and communities. This study serves a paramount public interest by shedding light on the often-overlooked realm of cybercrime victimization within the agricultural sector. Ghana’s vibrant agricultural industry, a vital contributor to the nation’s economy and food security, is not immune to the perils of cybercrime. This study responds to the urgent need to comprehend the experiences and perceptions of digital consumers who are gradually buying into the idea of engaging in agricultural produce transactions, and may be targeted by cybercriminals. Ultimately, this study serves the public interest by elevating cybersecurity awareness, enabling evidence-based decision-making, and fostering collaborations that unite individuals, businesses, academia, and policymakers in the shared goal of combating cybercrime.

1. Introduction

Information systems are now truly pervasive throughout every enterprise across the world (Agyemang et al., 2022). According to Haeruddin et al. (2023), businesses may now access customers outside of their typical geographic bounds which has altered the way businesses function. Digital consumers refer to individuals who engage in the consumption of goods and services through digital channels, such as the Internet, mobile devices, or other digital technologies (Desai & Vidyapeeth, 2019). Following the assertion of Pawlak and Kołodziejczak (2020), with respect to the role of agriculture in ensuring food security in developing countries, it is evident that the Ghana government has prioritized the growth of the agriculture industry as a means of reducing poverty and ensuring food security because it is the largest contributor to the nation’s economy. However, there have been more advocacies due to modernization on the usage of ecommerce in transacting agricultural businesses, in which expectations about cybercrime cannot be left out (Sher et al., 2019). This may impact smallholder farmers who utilize these platforms to sell their goods, as e-commerce platforms in Ghana have grown in popularity. According to Chen et al. (2023), cyber-crime victimization has become a significant global challenge, and Ghana is no exception. With the increasing adoption of digital technologies in agriculture, farmers and other digital consumers of agricultural produce are becoming more vulnerable to cybercrime.

The new global economy will have the ability to quickly change society with the use of information and technology (Mensah et al., 2023). In today’s world, info and communication technology (ICT) is rapidly growing, and its influence on socio-economic happenings cannot be understated. It has pervaded almost every element of life, including business, education, civic activities, governance, and society, and it has emerged as a key force in the development of wealth in industrialized countries globally (Adomako et al., 2022). According to a report by the Ghana Chamber of Telecommunications, Ghana experienced a 50% increase in cybercrime cases in 2020 compared with the previous year (Ghana Chamber of Telecommunications, 2021). In addition, the Ghanaian Times newspaper reported on 1 March 2023, that the Ghanaian economy may experience an enormous increase in cybercrime in 2023. This increase in cybercrime suggests a growing threat to Ghana’s digital consumers, including farmers who depend on digital platforms to market their produce.

Cybercrime victimization is a rapidly growing global concern. A report by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) (2019) highlights the increasing prevalence of cybercrime in e-commerce, including in the agricultural sector. The report noted that cybercrime can have a significant impact on consumer trust and confidence in online transactions, leading to reduced sales and financial losses for businesses. In Ghana, an increasing trend in cybercrime incidents has been reported in recent years (Kwofie, 2019; Nartey, 2021). Cybercrime is a growing problem in Ghana, with a 33% increase in reported cases between 2018 and 2019 (Ennin & Mensah, 2019). Farmers who use e-commerce platforms are particularly vulnerable, as they may not have the technical knowledge or resources to protect themselves from online threats.

This vulnerability is compounded by the fact that most agricultural producers in Ghana are small-scale farmers who lack access to formal financial services and may be less familiar with the risks associated with digital transactions (GSS, 2018). Research has shown that cybercrime has significant financial implications for farmers in Ghana, with losses estimated at up to GH¢16 million ($2.8 million USD) in 2020 (Eboibi, 2020). These losses may have a significant impact on farmers’ livelihoods and discourage them from using digital technologies in the future. Therefore, it is important to understand the experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana.

1.1. Problem statement

The interplay among the use of digitalisation has received a lot of research attention from scholars especially businessmen and women (Asafo-Adjei et al., 2023). Cybercrime victimization is a rapidly growing concern worldwide, including in Ghana, where cybercrime incidents have increased in recent years (Kwofie, 2019; Nartey, 2021). Cybercrime victims can experience significant financial and psychological harm, including financial loss, reputational damage, and emotional distress (Barranco et al., 2018). Despite the growing prevalence of cybercrime, little is known about the experiences and perceptions of digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana, particularly cybercrime victims.

Moreover, existing research on cybercrime victimization tends to focus on the technological and legal aspects of cybercrime rather than on the human experiences of victims (Van Wilsem, 2016). Therefore, there is a pressing need to investigate the experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims in order to gain a better appreciation of the human dimension of cybercrime victimization, which is essential for developing effective prevention and intervention strategies.

According to theoretical frameworks like routine activity theory, three factors must be present for crime to occur: a motivated criminal, an appropriate target, and the absence of capable guardianship (Clarke & Cohen, 1986; Cohen & Felson, 1979). These frameworks suggest that the experiences and perceptions of victims are shaped by their beliefs about the opportunities and motivations of cybercriminals, vulnerabilities of suitable targets, and effectiveness of capable guardianship in preventing cybercrime victimization.

Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana, with a particular focus on the human dimension of victimization. This qualitative study used semi-structured interviews to investigate the factors that contribute to cybercrime victimization and the impact of victimization on victims’ lives. The outcomes of this study will contribute to a better appreciation of cybercrime victimization, provide insights into the perceptions and experiences of victims, and inform the development of effective prevention and intervention strategies to mitigate the impact of cybercrime among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana.

1.2. Specific objectives

Specific objectives for the study on the experience and perception of cybercrime victims among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana include the following.

1. To identify the types of cybercrimes experienced by digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana.

2. To explore the impact of cybercrime on digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana.

3. To examine the coping mechanisms and strategies employed by cybercrime victims among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana.

2. Literature review

The research topic of “Experiences and Perceptions of Cybercrime Victims in Ghana: The Perspective of Digital Consumers of Agricultural Produce” is situated within the literature on cybercrime and its impact on consumer behavior. According to Apau and Koranteng (2019), cybercrime is a growing concern in many countries, including Ghana, and has significant implications for consumers who conduct online transactions. The literature on cybercrime highlights various forms of cybercrime, including phishing, identity theft, and online fraud, as well as the impact of these crimes on consumers’ perceptions of online transactions. Studies have shown that cybercrime can erode consumer trust in online transactions, leading to reduced engagement and decreased usage of online platforms (Chang et al., 2018; Nurse, 2018; Parvin & Panakaje, 2022).

In the agricultural sector, the literature highlights the potential of online platforms to enhance market access, improve transparency, and reduce transaction costs for farmers and other stakeholders (Deichmann et al., 2016). However, the literature also highlights the challenges faced by online transactions in the agricultural sector, including issues related to trust, security, and authenticity (Tanwar et al., 2022). The operational review of the terms and theoretical and empirical underpinnings are discussed below.

2.1. Theoretical underpinnings

The exploration of theoretical underpinnings is crucial for understanding and interpreting the experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims comprehensively. Among the various theories that could potentially provide insights into this realm, the Routine Activity Theory (RAT) emerged as particularly pertinent. This theory presents a multifaceted framework that delves into the dynamics of cybercrime victimization, shedding light on the factors that influence its occurrence. The work of Leukfeldt and Yar (2016), asserts that theoretical analysis and an analysis of empirical studies have thus far failed to provide a clear answer whether Routine Activity Theory (RAT) can be used as an analytical framework to study cybercrimes. However, Cook et al. (2023) recently used Routine Activity Theory to underpin their quest to examine the extent, nature, and impact of fear of cybercrime. In this regard, the Routine Activity Theory (RAT) served as a robust theoretical underpinning for the study on “Experiences and Perceptions of Cybercrime Victims in Ghana: The Perspective of Digital Consumers of Agricultural Produce” due to its inherent relevance in explaining the dynamics of cybercrime victimization within the context of routine online activities.

Moreover, according to McNeeley (2015), RAT was originally developed to explain conventional crime occurrences, but its adaptability to the realm of cybercrime is evident. In the digital landscape, routine online activities mirror the routine activities of everyday life, creating opportunities for cybercriminals to exploit vulnerabilities. By applying RAT to cybercrime, the study explored how digital consumers’ routine online activities intersect with the modus operandi of cybercriminals. In essence, the Routine Activity Theory offers a comprehensive framework that resonates with the realities of cybercrime victimization among digital consumers in Ghana’s agricultural sector. Its applicability to the digital landscape enhances the study’s capacity to uncover insights that inform effective strategies to prevent and mitigate cybercrimes, ultimately contributing to a safer online environment for consumers.

2.1.1. Routine Activity Theory (RAT)

The study employs Routine Activity Theory (RAT) as a foundational framework to explore the “Experiences and Perceptions of Cybercrime Victims in Ghana: The Perspective of Digital Consumers of Agricultural Produce” and provides a robust foundation for understanding the dynamics of cybercrime victimization within the context of the agricultural sector in Ghana. Routine activity theory proposes that a crime occurs when three elements converge: a motivated offender, a suitable target, and the absence of a capable guardian (Cohen & Felson, 1979). Applied to the context of cybercrime, routine activity theory suggests that cybercrime occurs when a cybercriminal (motivated offender) identifies a vulnerable target (suitable target) and exploits the absence of effective security measures (absence of capable guardians) to carry out the crime (Holt, 2012). Applied to our context, this theory underscores that, digital consumers, while engaging in routine online activities, may unknowingly expose themselves to cyber risks. Victims may view cybercriminals as opportunistic, capitalizing on software vulnerabilities or employing social engineering tactics to target and loot their victims of valuable items. The relevance of RAT in this study is underscored by the increasing digitization of agricultural practices, as highlighted by Guo et al. (2022). Digital consumers in the agricultural sector are progressively participating in online activities like transactions and information sharing, potentially heightening their exposure to cyber threats. These victims are often targeted due to perceived vulnerabilities and the potential for financial exploitation by cybercriminals.

In the context of this study, routine activity theory was used to understand the experiences and perceptions of digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana who have been victims of cybercrime. The theory suggests that the occurrence of cybercrime is influenced by the routine activities of digital consumers, perceived risks associated with online transactions, and the availability of capable guardians to prevent cybercrime. By using routine activity theory as a theoretical framework, this study can offer a deeper understanding of the experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims in Ghana and inform policies and interventions to mitigate the risks associated with cybercrime in the agricultural sector.

For the study, applying the Routine Activity Theory as a theoretical framework offered a comprehensive lens through which to understand the intricacies of cybercrime victimization among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana. The theory accounts for the behaviors of cyber criminals, the vulnerabilities of victims, and the effectiveness of preventive measures. By adopting this framework, the study aims to uncover deeper insights into the experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims and contribute to the development of targeted policies and interventions that address the unique challenges posed by cybercrime in the agricultural sector.

2.2. Empirical literature

There is limited empirical research on the experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims in Ghana, particularly in the context of digital consumers of agricultural produce. However, some studies provide insights into broader issues related to cybercrime and online transactions in Ghana.

For example, Agyemang and Osei-Fosu (2020) investigated the factors that influence consumers’ adoption of online shopping in Ghana. The study found that trust, perceived security, and perceived usefulness were significant determinants of consumers’ adoption of online shopping. This study also identified concerns related to cybercrime, including identity theft, fraud, and hacking, as significant barriers to online shopping adoption.

Another study by Kumi et al. (2021) examined the impact of cybercrime on online transactions in Ghana’s retail sector. The study found that cybercrime was a significant concern for online retailers and led to reduced consumer trust in online transactions. This study recommended the need for effective cybersecurity measures and awareness-raising campaigns to mitigate the risks of cybercrime.

Atuahene-Gima et al. (2020) investigated the factors that influence farmers’ adoption of e-commerce in Ghana. The study found that trust, security, and perceived usefulness are significant determinants of farmers’ adoption of e-commerce. The study also identified concerns related to cybersecurity as a significant barrier to e-commerce adoption among farmers.

Moreover, with respect to a study on victimisation and perceptions of cybercrime in Ghana” by Yahya and Chien-Chiang (2023), it was revealed that victims often experience significant financial losses and emotional distress. Ejemeyovwi and Osabuohien (2018) explored the experiences of cybercrime victimization among university students in Ghana. The study found that cybercrime victimization had significant negative effects on victims’ academic performance, mental health, and overall well-being. The study investigated the mediating role of fear of crime by investigating the relationship between fear of cybercrime and cybercrime victimization in Ghana. This study found that fear of cybercrime significantly predicted cybercrime victimization among Ghanaians. An exploratory study by Ennin and Mensah (2022) on the impact of cybercrime on victims in Ghana revealed that cybercrime victimization has significant emotional, psychological, and financial effects on victims in Ghana.

Despite limited research on the topic in focus, previous research conducted highlights the broader implications of cybercrime on online transactions and consumer behavior in the country including financial losses, reduction of consumer trust, waning academic performance, and a few others. These findings underscore the importance of cybersecurity measures, trust-building initiatives, and awareness campaigns to address the challenges posed by cybercrime and enhance Ghana’s overall digital environment.

3. Methodology

3.1. Research design

Given the exploratory nature of this research topic, a phenomenological research design was a suitable approach for studying the experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims in Ghana from the perspective of digital consumers of agricultural produce. Phenomenology is a qualitative research methodology that aims to explore the subjective experiences and meanings that people attach to their lived experiences (Patton, 2015). In a phenomenological research design, the focus is on understanding the lived experiences of cybercrime victims who have purchased agricultural produce online in Ghana.

3.2. Population and sampling design

The population of this study comprises digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana who have experienced cybercrime while purchasing agricultural produce online. Specifically, the study population for this study was selected from Labone, East Legon, Dzorwulu, Roman Ridge and Cantoments all in the Greater Accra Region, Ghana. Purposive sampling technique and Snowball sampling were used to select participants who had experienced cybercrime while purchasing agricultural products online in Ghana and participants with diverse backgrounds and experiences.

A proper definition and specification of the population for this study is very critical because it will serve as a guide in appraising the sample credibility, sampling technique and the outcome of the research as noted by Pernecky (2016). The aim of this study was to include participants with diverse backgrounds and experiences to ensure that the findings were representative of the population. The sample size in qualitative research is not determined by statistical power or significance levels but rather by the principles of data saturation. Data saturation is the point at which the researcher stops gathering data because the new data no longer contributes to new insights or themes (Braun & Clarke, 2021).

Therefore, sample size can vary depending on the research question, research design, and level of data saturation. However, a general guideline aims for a sample size of at least 10–30 participants for phenomenological studies to ensure that the data collected are sufficiently rich and varied (Marshall et al., 2013). The sample size of this study was 26 participants. Ethical considerations of voluntary participation, confidentiality, and anonymity were taken into account during the recruitment of participants. In light of ensuring the confidentiality and anonymity of the participants, fictitious names in the form of pseudonyms were used to de-identify all study participants.

3.3. Data collection instrument and strategy

Semi-structured interviews were conducted to collect data on the experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims in Ghana. The interviews were designed to explore participants’ experiences of cybercrime while purchasing agricultural produce online, their perceptions of the impact of cybercrime on their lives, and their coping mechanisms. Given the nature of the study and its focus on digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana who have experienced cybercrime, the data collection sites were online Platforms such as Global Systems for Mobile Communication and Esoko Foundation. These organizations connected us to online platforms where some of the victims were realised and selected. Since the study involves digital consumers who engage in online transactions, the data was collected from various online platforms where these consumers purchase agricultural produce. Potential participants were informed of the purpose of the study and their consent was obtained. Semi-structured interviews were conducted face-to-face and online in English language, Fante and Twi.

The provided transcribed texts in the result section below are considered reliable sources of data. The reliability is attributed to the careful transcription process adhering to established transcription conventions and guidelines. Additionally, the accuracy and consistency of the transcribed content were cross-checked against the original audio recordings, further ensuring the reliability of the transcriptions. These transcriptions serve as the primary data source, representing the content and meaning of the interviews. The same reliability was also arrived at through the use of comprehensive data, constant testing and comparison of data. The interviews were recorded with the participants’ consent and transcribed for analysis. The timeframe for the data collection was approximately 6 weeks. Data analysis was performed using thematic analysis, which involved identifying patterns and themes in the collected data. The data were processed using NVivo software.

4. Results

The data collected from the participants were transcribed and analyzed using thematic analysis. Thematic analysis was used to identify patterns and themes in the data collected from semi-structured interviews. The analytical process was divided into several steps based on the objectives of the study.

4.1. Specific objective 1: identification of the types of cybercrimes experienced by victims among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana

4.1.1. Theme one: types of cybercrime experienced

One of the primary objectives of our study which is theme one was to identify the types of cybercrimes to which the study participants had fallen victim. To achieve this, our line of questioning was specifically designed to extract this vital information. Participants revealed various forms of cybercrimes, including other well-known types and those that might be unfamiliar to the average person. These individuals reported incidents such as the solicitation of personal information, especially information that could be used for fraudulent financial activities. The evidence of these experiences can be seen from the accounts of three participants who reported receiving unsolicited emails, links to counterfeit websites and marketplaces, and dubious requests for sensitive information such as credit card details and social security numbers. Here is what they had to say:

I received unsolicited emails and messages that appeared to be from legitimate sources such as banks and online marketplaces. These messages often contained links that led to fake websites, which prompted me to enter personal information such as passwords and credit card numbers. (Tintin)

My personal information, such as credit card numbers or social security numbers, was stolen and used fraudulently. (Asigolanga)

I fell victim to online scams such as fake online marketplaces and investment schemes. These scams promised high returns or discounts on agricultural produce purchases but ultimately resulted in me losing money. (Zaza)

Two other participants reported being affected by different types of cybercrime perpetrated by cybercriminals. These other types of cybercrime include malware (software that is specifically designed to disrupt, damage, or gain unauthorized access to a computer system) and spyware (software that enables a user to obtain covert information about another’s computer activities by transmitting data covertly from their hard drive) which are means used primarily to acquire vital credentials of victims. They also reported these cybercriminals parading themselves as trustworthy persons from specific institutions all in an attempt to obtain personal information. This is how they pointed it out:

I downloaded malicious software such as viruses and spyware, which compromised my personal information and made my device unusable. (Fako)

I was tricked by cybercriminals who used social engineering tactics, such as pretending to be a trusted individual from an institution, to gain access to personal information. (Caeser)

In line with the findings of a study conducted in the same area, it was established that phishing, identity theft, and pharming were among the most prevalent cases of cybercrime recorded and reported in the United States (Brody et al., 2007). This is a global phenomenon, as there have been numerous documented cases of phishing and pharming in Europe and Asia, with the United States leading the statistics (Phishing Activity Trends Report, 2006). As indicated by the responses of our participants, they identified the same types of cybercrimes as those mentioned in other studies conducted in this field. It appears that the participants are well-informed about these common types of cybercrimes observed worldwide. However, it remains unclear whether they had prior knowledge of these cybercrimes before becoming victims or gained awareness afterward.

4.2. Specific objective 2: the impact of cybercrime on victims among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana

4.2.1. Theme two: impact on victims

Our study also aimed to explore the impact of cybercrime activities on individuals who had fallen victim. The majority of the victims reported being targeted by cybercrimes with financial motives, which is a primary reason for cybercriminals engaging in such activities. Cybercriminals gained unauthorized access to credit card information and other financial credentials of their victims, which they used to extort money and other financial assets. The greatest impact on these victims is the loss of money. Here are some accounts of what the participants shared:

I lost a significant amount of money when I fell for an investment scheme that promised high returns but turned out to be a scam. It was devastating to lose my hard-earned money in such a manner. (Pusher)

I had my credit card information stolen, and the cybercriminals made fraudulent purchases, which caused me to lose a lot of money. (Asibolanga)

A careful review also unveiled the psychological impacts on individuals victimized by these cybercriminals. A few participants reported feeling violated, comparing the experience to being robbed, and struggling to come to terms with post-traumatic feelings associated with victimization. Another participant expressed a sense of helplessness and vulnerability, realizing that they are not as digitally secure or protected as they once believed. They lamented:

I felt violated when my personal information was stolen. It was as if someone had broken into my home and stole my personal belongings. The emotional distress caused by cybercrime is significant. (Fako)

It was a nightmare to deal with the aftermath of the cybercrime (Asibolanga)

I felt helpless and vulnerable after falling victim to cybercrime. It is scary to think that someone could gain access to my personal information and use it for fraudulent purposes. (Zidah)

The advent of the internet has made shopping and other business transactions incredibly easy and convenient. However, the actions of cybercriminals have created a sense of unease, making it difficult for victims of cybercrimes to trust online platforms for any form of financial transaction. Some participants reported falling victim to scams where they were deceived into paying for counterfeit products, falsely advertised as genuine. Another participant also expressed distrust in financial institutions, which apparently served as the source from which cyber criminals obtained access to the financial details of victims. In their words, here is what they said:

I used to trust online marketplaces, but after falling victim to cybercrime, I am now skeptical about using them. The impact of cybercrime on the trust of online platforms and institutions is significant. (Zaza)

I no longer trust financial institutions as my personal information was stolen from a bank’s website. Cybercrime has eroded my trust in these institutions. (Kogo)

The impacts of cybercrime have been extensively documented in a study conducted in India by Das and Nayak (2013), which carefully details the various aspects of an individual’s life heavily affected by cybercrimes. According to the study, the impact of cybercrime activities spans various areas, including psychological, emotional, financial/economic, social, political, and more. These findings align with the perspectives shared by the participants in our study, who also mentioned experiencing financial losses, emotional distress, and trust issues. These effects are essentially psychological, emotional, and financial/economic in nature and are among the impacts they had to deal with as victims of cybercrimes. This alignment is further supported by an exploratory study conducted by Mensah and Akuoko (2023) on the impact of cybercrime on victims in Ghana.

4.3. Specific Objective 3: Coping Mechanisms and Strategies Employed by Cybercrime Victims Among Digital Consumers of Agricultural Produce in Ghana

4.3.1. Theme three: Coping Mechanisms and Strategies

Information was gathered from participants regarding the various ways they dealt with being victimized by cybercriminals. They reported employing a variety of coping mechanisms and strategies, ranging from education to more cautious measures like limiting their online presence. An account from Cece, one of the participants, revealed her actions following a cybercrime victimization. She shared that she has become extremely cautious with her online dealings, ensuring she verifies the legitimacy of websites before engaging in any transactions, especially those that could risk financial loss. Additionally, she has taken active steps to educate herself on how to secure against cybercrimes. This illustrates that some participants cope by becoming more cautious and knowledgeable in their online activities, aiming to identify and avoid cybercrimes. Here is what she had to say about it:

After falling victim to cybercrime, I have become more conscious of online safety measures. I make sure to check the authenticity of websites before entering any personal information, and I have also educated myself on how to identify and avoid cybercrime. (Cece)

Another participant, when discussing their approach to coping with victimization or dealing with cybercriminal attacks, mentioned the practice of regularly monitoring their financial statements. This proactive strategy involves keeping an eye on their bank and credit card statements in order to detect any unauthorized transactions or suspicious activities as early as possible. This actually is a good defensive measure as it enables individuals to take immediate action in response to potential threats and safeguard their financial well-being. Here is what one of the respondents had to say:

I always keep an eye on my bank statements and credit card transactions. If I notice any unusual activity, I contact my bank immediately to resolve the issue. (Zeze)

Smitty, one of the participants among others, also highlighted the use of two-factor authentication as an essential extra layer of security when engaging in online transactions. This security measure plays a pivotal role in shielding their accounts from unauthorized access by requiring users to provide two distinct forms of verification:

I always use two-factor authentication when making online transactions. It gives me peace of mind knowing that my account is protected. (Smitty)

According to Nsia, he reported seeking legal assistance where he had been a victim of cybercrime by soliciting the services of lawyers and law enforcement agencies to help recover their losses and bring the perpetrators to justice:

I sought the services of a lawyer after being scammed online. They helped me recover some of my losses and also reported the case to the police. (Nsia)

Tintin also reported limiting his online presence and avoiding sharing personal information on social media platforms. He mentioned that this reduces his vulnerability to cybercrime. Below is his report:

I have reduced my online presence and avoided sharing personal information on social media. It’s better to be safe than sorry. (Tintin)

Coping mechanisms for cybercrime, as identified in a study conducted by Gaurav, Ronak, and Kumbharana (2022), include various practices such as password hygiene, encryption, VPN usage, avoiding public Wi-Fi, data backup, firewall implementation, education, mass sensitization, and two-factor authentication. Additionally, Muthusankar et al. (2016) emphasizes the importance of robust security systems for safeguarding sensitive information and avoiding online threats. These mechanisms align with the coping strategies mentioned by the participants in our study, who cited monitoring their bank and credit card statements, using two-factor authentication, seeking legal advice and professional assistance, and reducing their online presence as some of the primary coping mechanisms and strategies they adopted after falling victim to cybercrime attacks.

5. Discussion

The first theme of the article considered the common types of cybercrime that individuals within the agricultural sector fell prey to. Although the study used a relatively small sample size, which limits the extent of generalization, it is noteworthy that several of the cybercrimes identified by our participants align with types observed in studies conducted in various parts of the world (Brody et al., 2007; Phishing Activity Trends Report, 2006; Yadav et al., 2021). This convergence in findings underscores the global nature of cyber threats. Phishing attempts were quite common among the cybercrimes that participants mentioned falling victim to. They also mentioned receiving emails and messages that initially appeared legitimate tricking them into unintentionally sharing personal information. Alongside phishing participants also reported being targeted by types of online scams promising big returns but only resulting in financial losses. Moreover, they shared experiences of identity theft where their personal information was stolen and misused for activities. Malware attacks and social engineering tactics also were some of the cybercrime activities they reported saying they had downloaded software that compromised the security of their devices. The fact that our findings align with research emphasizes the importance of cybersecurity awareness and protective measures, in the agricultural sector. Cyber threats know no boundaries so it is crucial for both individuals and organizations to stay vigilant, against the evolving landscape of cybercrimes.

The second theme that emerged from this study is the level of impact caused by cybercrimes on victims. Participants reported an array of impacts on various aspects of their lives, mirroring the findings of Das and Nayak (2013). According to their study, the repercussions of cybercrime activities span across diverse domains, encompassing psychological, emotional, financial/economic, social, political, and more. The participants in our study emphasized the significant impact they encountered, which is consistent with the findings of the other studies mentioned. Among these, the participants reported experiencing a range of emotional, psychological, and financial impacts. The emotional impact of cybercrime is significant, with victims experiencing feelings of anger, frustration, and violation. Victims also experience financial losses, which can be substantial, leading to financial difficulties and distress. The fact that our results also coincide with a study conducted by Amagloh and Adjei (2021) on the consequences of cybercrime for victims in Ghana, further emphasizes the importance of addressing these complex challenges posed by cybercrimes.

As the study’s third theme, we looked at the coping mechanisms and strategies adopted by cybercrime victims among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana. It was revealed that victims in an attempt to secure themselves against such occurrences employed several coping mechanisms, such as educating themselves on online safety measures, monitoring financial statements, adopting two-factor authentication, seeking legal assistance, and limiting online presence though some of these were not sufficient enough as most still fell prey to these cybercriminals. These strategies align with rational coping theory and positive criminology, emphasizing education and awareness as effective means to combat cybercrime. It also aligns with studies conducted by Chhatwal & Deepak (2022) and Muthusankar et al. (2016) which listed these same mechanisms as coping mechanisms that individuals in other parts of the world adopted to deal with losses faced from cybercrime activities.

The study’s use of Routine Activity Theory (RAT) offers valuable insights into cybercrime victimization dynamics among digital consumers in Ghana’s agricultural sector. RAT emphasizes the role of routine online activities, perceived risks, and capable guardians in shaping cybercrime occurrences. The study discovered that participants who routinely engage in online activities, such as purchasing items from fake online marketplaces as reported by one of the participants and falling victim to credit card information theft as reported by many others, have faced various cybersecurity risks where opportunistic cybercriminals exploited weaknesses in their online behaviour. These cybercriminals employed tactics like social engineering to deceive and manipulate individuals, resulting in financial losses, including the theft of money and other valuable assets. The digitization of agriculture in Ghana further exposes digital consumers to cyber threats. This therefore reveals an alignment with all three principles underlying RAT where routine online activities and perceived risks meet with capable guardians. Although our study did not make extensive use of the RAT in its analysis, we can loosely conclude that we can see elements of all three principles of the RAT at play here. However, a study by Miró (2014) found that there are different outcomes when using RAT for cybercrime. This according to him is because different aspects of the RAT might be used for different kinds of cybercrime.

The sum total of the study highlights the need for heightened awareness, education, and cybersecurity measures among digital consumers in the agricultural sector. It also emphasizes the importance of proactive coping strategies and legal support to address the emotional, psychological, and financial impacts of cybercrime. These findings can inform policies and interventions for a safer digital environment in agriculture.

6. Conclusions and recommendations

The outcomes of this study have significant implications for policymakers, law enforcement agencies, and other stakeholders involved in addressing cybercrime in Ghana. The study highlights the need for more effective support and assistance for victims of cybercrime in Ghana by recommending that the government establish victim support centers, contact hotlines and online resources, provide legal aid, offer psychological counseling, and consider financial assistance programs, all while conducting awareness campaigns and collaborating with NGOs, training law enforcement agencies, and advocating for restitution and data breach notification policies to ensure comprehensive protection and recovery for victims.

It also underscores the need for greater awareness of cybercrime among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana by focusing on increasing the awareness of common cyber threats such as phishing and providing practical guidance on how to recognize phishing attempts and verify sources before engaging with suspicious emails, messages, or links as well as developing more effective mechanisms for reporting, investigating, and prosecuting cybercrime within the Ghanaian context. This awareness initiative also includes promoting knowledge on the use of Two-Factor Authentication by offering clear instructions on how individuals can set up and use this additional layer of security for their online accounts, while also educating the public on safe internet practices, including the importance of regularly updating software, using strong and unique passwords, and exercising caution while sharing personal information online.

This study provides insights into the experiences and perceptions of victims of cybercrime in Ghana and can be used by relevant agencies like the Cyber Security Authority of Ghana, the Cyber Fraud Unit of the Ghana Police Service, and the National Communications Authority to inform policies and practices to better address cybercrime in the country and across the globe.

7. Limitations of the study

1. The study’s findings might be influenced by cultural, social, and geographical factors specific to the participants’ locations. This may limit the applicability of the findings to other regions with different cultural contexts.

2. The study employs qualitative methods, specifically in-depth interviews and thematic analysis. While qualitative research is valuable for exploring complex experiences and perspectives, it lacks the statistical rigor and generalizability of quantitative research. The findings are more context-specific and not easily applicable to other settings or populations.

8. Suggestion for further studies

Further studies that can be conducted on the topic “experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims in Ghana: the perspective of digital consumers of agricultural produce” include:

1. A comparative study between digital consumers of agricultural produce and digital consumers of other products in Ghana to explore if the experience and perception of cybercrime victims vary across different industries.

2. A quantitative study to determine the prevalence of cybercrime among digital consumers of agricultural produce in Ghana, and the different types of cybercrime they are vulnerable to.

3. A study to assess the effectiveness of existing cybercrime prevention policies and interventions in Ghana, specifically targeted at digital consumers of agricultural produce.

4. A cross-country comparative study to explore how the experience and perception of cybercrime victims in the digital agricultural sector varies across different countries in Africa.

These studies may provide a deeper understanding of the experiences and perceptions of cybercrime victims in Ghana and other African countries, and help to develop more effective strategies for preventing and addressing cybercrime in the digital agricultural sector.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Data availability statement

Data are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Supplemental data

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2285623.

Additional information

Funding

The authors received no direct funding for this research.

Notes on contributors

Ronald Osei Mensah

Ronald Osei Mensah [M.Phil., MPA, B.A, PGDE] is a Lecturer with the Social Development Department, Takoradi Technical University and a PhD Candidate with the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. He has cross-cutting research experience in the areas of the Sociology of Law and Criminal Justice, Cultural Deviance, Penology, Criminal Justice Education, Media Studies and African History.

Pius Mensah

Pius Mensah is an M.Phil. graduate from the University of Cape Coast. He obtained his Bachelor of Arts Degree in Economics and Sociology from the University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. Pius has research interests in the area of Agricultural Economics, Sociology and Sports Science.

Daniel Opoku

Daniel Opoku is a Part-time Lecturer and a Doctoral Candidate with the Department of Sociology and Anthropology at the University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana. He writes about ageing, family crime, and social protection. He holds Bachelor of Arts degree in Sociology and Social Work and an M.Phil. degree in Sociology all from the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana.