Orchestrating vocational education classrooms for adaptive instruction and collaborative learning

Abstract

This study investigates adaptive instructions concerning students’ interactive learning activities in evolving vocational environments and explores collaborative learning in the professional field. Classroom orchestration, as the overarching framework, indicates how the teacher acts as a conductor in leading different levels of classroom activities. A mixed-method design integrates quantitative and qualitative data collection and analysis methods, including a sample of sixty observations for evaluating teaching behaviours and clustering teaching with students’ learning engagement. Three videotaped lessons are analysed to illustrate vocation-oriented lesson activities in which students interact in the classroom. Findings suggest that vocational teachers adopt informal approaches to enhance student engagement during classroom practices. For example, they are small-group-oriented collaborative teaching, lesson activities connected to real-life situations, adaptive and structured instructions on students’ learning activities, and flexible teaching arrangements in the vocational learning environment. These findings indicate the importance of integrating students’ career-based learning and instruction within collaborative vocational learning environments. The study sheds light on strategies for adapting instructional approaches to meet the diverse needs of vocational students. Additionally, it highlights the significance of collaborative learning for the advancement of pedagogical practices in the context of vocational education.

Keywords:

• Learning for work
• vocational training
• student engagement
• collaborative learning
• adaptive instruction

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• A.Y.M. Atiquil Islam, East China Normal University, China

SUBJECTS:

• Adult Education and Lifelong Learning; Classroom Practice Higher Education; Sustainability Education
• Training & Leadership; Theories of Learning

Introduction

The changes in vocational education have generated concerns about students’ learning and teaching pedagogies, such as implementing a work-based vocational education curriculum, linking vocational learning with labour-market requirements, and recontextualising both the curriculum and vocational workplace knowledge (Catts et al., 2011; Kligyte et al., 2023). These have brought about a call for new forms of vocational learning and teaching because the conventional forms of vocational knowledge and skills are no longer considered sufficient for the rapid changes in workplace environments (Fenwick, 2003). Other studies also highlight the need to change the pedagogical model to enhance students’ independent and collaborative learning and adapt to new learning situations in higher vocational classrooms (Liang & Dongfeng, 2021; Lizier & Reich, 2021). As a result, countries worldwide are updating their vocational education systems to improve students’ learning interactions and vocational pedagogies and renew teachers’ knowledge of the workplace.

However, more research needs to explore fostering vocational students’ engagement and adaptive instruction in a collaborative classroom setting. Okolie et al. (2021) propose strategies for vocational teachers to support students’ effective collaboration, such as the teacher’s role in engaging students’ learning, adjusting students’ tasks for learning participation, and facilitating students to collaborate in their everyday activities. On the other hand, research also indicates that many factors may influence vocational students’ learning and adaptive instruction. For example, an adaptive learning system can personalise the classroom-based large-group and small-group instructions using AI-supported learning in vocational education (Wang et al., 2020). Other researchers also proved that integrating AI technologies with adaptive teaching can improve students’ learning effectiveness and direct and indirect learning interactions (Hoffman & Duffy, 2016; Sun et al., 2017).

The relationship between teaching behaviours and students’ engagement suggests that vocational teachers’ adaptive instructions are more critical in improving vocational learning and teaching practice (Zhao et al., 2023). This paper explores adaptive instructions regarding students’ learning activities in the changing vocational learning environments and students’ collaborative learning in the professional field. Concerning the development of students’ knowledge and occupational competence, adaptive instructions for vocational students emphasise activating vocation-oriented activities and encouraging built-in flexible teaching arrangements. The study explores students’ collaborative learning engagement and adaptive instructions under the vocation-integrated learning environment and addresses the importance of understanding vocational classroom interactions by analysing qualitative class observations.

Theoretical underpinnings

Orchestrating classroom in teaching and learning

Classroom orchestration is ‘how a teacher manages, in real-time, multi-layered activities in a multi-constraints context’ (Dillenbourg, 2013, p. 485), which suggests that orchestrating learning allows the teacher to act as a conductor in leading different levels of classroom activities. The concept of orchestrating the classroom enables teachers to perceive pedagogy as the integration or management of different forms of interactions, including classroom dialogues, technological devices such as interactive whiteboards or tablets, and diverse teaching strategies like simulations, quizzes, and demonstrations. When orchestrating classroom activities, teachers demonstrate flexibility in adjusting materials or instructional strategies to accommodate different learning needs in the constraints of a learning environment (Esmond, 2021). Researchers have pointed out that teachers should support students’ classroom discussions with reflective actions and encourage students to share ideas in dialogic interactions (Nasir et al., 2023; Rojas-Drummond et al., 2013). Therefore, dialogues and extended question discussions in a problem-based learning system can help vocational students create an interactive and collaborative learning environment.

Dillenbourg and Jermann (2010) systematically review factors relating to classroom orchestration and its learning environments, which provides a teacher-centric view for designing face-to-face classroom activities with technologies. ‘Designing for orchestration implies facilitating the dual flow of information in a classroom, across digital and physical information containers’ (Dillenbourg, 2013, p. 491), which indicates that teachers need to consider many design principles such as time, space, energy, and assessment while designing physical activities in the context of vocational classrooms. Sharples (2013) highlights that orchestrating students’ interactions with computer devices enables the teacher to shift the control to students to continue the learning activity beyond the classroom. Particularly, orchestration emphasises the variety and complexity of the classroom and supports teachers’ roles in adapting materials for students’ practical and interactive learning (Roschelle et al., 2013). Therefore, interaction with peers and teachers and social media applications affect students’ involvement in the collaborative learning classroom (Qureshi et al., 2021).

Collaborative learning in vocational classrooms

Collaborative learning has been regarded as a complex phenomenon that can be analysed through individual and social levels. Dillenbourg (1999, p. 2) defines collaborative learning as ‘a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together’. The definition labels three dimensions of collaborative learning: the group size of the collaborative situation, activities such as problem-solving and course material learning, and different forms of interaction such as face-to-face or computer-mediated learning collaboration. Thus, collaborative learning in vocational education incorporates online collaborative learning solutions to increase students’ learning and vocational skills (Słowikowski et al., 2018). For example, vocational students’ collaboration in small group settings fosters a dynamic learning environment where instructional activities revolve around tackling open-ended mathematics problems, which promotes engagement and stimulates critical thinking (Hoek & Seegers, 2005).

The collaborative learning environment in vocational education has adapted e-learning courses and AI-supported technologies to the specialised subjects with structured training materials such as mechatronics (Słowikowski et al., 2018; Sun et al., 2017). Various vocational subjects rely on teamwork and instructional approaches that promote collaborative learning. Thus, the learners need various skills and knowledge in the professional field and develop personal skills specific to the workplace. Concerning increasing students’ engagement and improving learning outcomes, various technological materials incorporated into online classroom discussions facilitate collaboration with instructors in improving students’ innate skills and reflective actions (Dyer et al., 2015; Nasir et al., 2023). Hämäläinen et al. (2008) propose that free-form collaborative learning games need tools or models to facilitate learning situations systematically and indicate that scripted game environments in the vocational context help the students’ collaboration process in different phases. According to Dillenbourg (2002), collaborative scripts refer to instructional guidelines that direct students to form groups and engage in interactive problem-solving activities with their group members. Particularly, levels of scripting in directing specific activities set the conditions for collaborative learning in the different phases of collaboration (Dillenbourg & Jermann, 2006).

Engaging students through adaptive instructions

Constructivism supports the theory of adaptive instruction, which aligns with learning as an interactive and constructive process (Yilmaz, 2008). In a vocational classroom setting, adaptive or individualised instruction resembles orchestrating the learning that the teacher observes the actual classroom dynamics and decides the specific adaptations for the required students (Dillenbourg, 2013; Esmond, 2021). Thus, classroom engagement is intertwined closely with adaptive instructions, in which students get involved in hands-on learning experiences and real-world simulations. Researchers propose that individualised adaptive learning outperforms traditional teacher-led instruction in the context of collaborative classroom-based learning (Schaap et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2020). Applying virtual reality in vocational training can enhance students’ adaptability and familiarity with the dynamic production situations in a particular product industry (Lee, 2023).

Additionally, adaptive teaching and tutoring can identify students’ learning gaps through ongoing monitoring and adjust the instruction accordingly to ensure students’ active participation in learning activities (Kenny & Pahl, 2009). Consequently, this study argues that engaging students in vocational classrooms with adaptive instruction nurtures a dynamic and supportive learning environment. By adapting teaching methods, materials, and industry-relevant projects to meet students’ diverse learning styles and career goals, adaptive teaching and instruction create inclusive and responsive learning environments to engage students in their future working contexts. Therefore, changes within a vocational learning environment demonstrate a strong association with the implementation of a flexible learning package for work-based learning and the establishment of a virtual learning environment. This serves the purpose of providing fundamental technical knowledge required for the seamless integration of intelligent machines in the working industry.

Method

A mixed-method design in this study integrates quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection as well as analysis since it is suggested that ‘using a quantitative study helps qualitative researchers define a population of interest based on specific research findings gathered from the quantitative study’ (Hesse-Biber, 2010, p. 65). The study employed two observation instruments: the International Comparative Analysis of Learning and Teaching (ICALT) instrument (van de Grift, 2013) in terms of six aspects of effective teaching domains and one part of learner engagement; the Comparative Analysis of Effective Teaching and Inspiring Teaching (CETIT) instrument (Ko et al., 2019) in terms of five aspects of inspiring teaching. The two instruments were adopted to investigate the effects of different teaching dimensions (i.e. adaptive instructions and collaborative learning) on students’ classroom learning engagement.

ICALT/CETIT instruments and samplings

This study employed purposive sampling (Patton, 2002) to recruit teacher participants with at least three years of vocational teaching experience. Twenty teacher participants were involved in the videotaped lesson observations. The teacher participants encompass a range of subject areas, including automobile engineering training, cross-border e-commerce training, international trade, and electronic engineering training. The subjects of their teaching are closely linked to regional enterprises with the collaboration between vocational colleges and local industries in designing the curricula. Each teacher was observed three times during one semester, with an average class size of approximately 25 to 30 students in each observed classroom. We obtained informed consent from all teacher participants, ensuring they were fully aware of the procedures, potential risks, and benefits of their involvement in the study.

A total of sixty lessons from two higher vocational colleges in South China were recorded by using the ICALT and CETIT observation instruments. Each teacher participant was observed initially by using thirty-two descriptive statements of generic teaching behaviours in six observable domains (safe and stimulating learning climate, efficient classroom management, clear and structured instruction, activating teaching, adaptive instructions, and teaching learning strategy) of the ICALT with a four-point scale (1= mostly weak; 2 = more often weak than strong; 3 = more often strong than weak; 4 = mostly strong). The CETIT instrument has similar features to the ICALT instrument, which highlights five aspects (enthusiasm, reflectiveness, flexibility, collaboration, and innovative teaching) with thirty descriptive statements of inspiring teaching by using a five-point scale (1 = mostly weak; 2 = more often weak than strong; 3= not observed (neutral); 4 = more often strong than weak; 5 = mostly strong). The two observation instruments are supplementary to each other in supporting vocational classroom teaching and students’ learning engagement. We chose three videotaped classes (automobile engineering training, cross-border e-commerce training with software, and electronic engineering training) for the in-depth analysis to further explore how the teacher manages the multi-layered activities to facilitate teacher-student classroom interactions and discussions with reflective actions.

Data analysis and results

Table 1 compares the results of the descriptive analysis of the factors of ICALT and CETIT instruments. The mean scores and standard deviations of ICALT factors are fairly consistent with the cross-country study reported by Maulana et al. (2021), where Safe and Stimulating Learning Climate, Efficient Classroom Management, and Clear and Structured Instructions have higher means than Intensive and Activating Teaching, Teaching Learning Strategy, and Adjusted Teaching for Learner Differences, indicating that there were two distinctive levels of teaching capability. However, these consistent results suggest that vocational teachers, like other secondary teachers, tended to be stronger in teaching and managing students’ learning.

Table 1. Means, standard deviations, and correlations among variables (N = 60).

	Mean	S. D	SLC	ECM	CSI	IAT	TLS	ALD	LE	EM	RT	FB	CN
Safe and Stimulating Learning Climate (SLC)	2.93	0.35	1
Efficient Classroom Management (ECM)	3.16	0.35	.37**	1
Clear and Structured Instructions (CSI)	2.84	0.35	.26*	.68**	1
Intensive and Activating Teaching (IAT)	2.46	0.26	.28*	.51**	.58**	1
Teaching Learning Strategy (TLS)	2.45	0.35	0.02	.49**	.61**	.36**	1
Adjusted Teaching for Learner Differences (ATLD)	2.1	0.31	.28*	.38**	.51**	.48**	.31*	1
Learner Engagement (LE)	2.93	0.45	.39**	.48**	.54**	.58**	0.02	.37**	1
Enthusiasm (EM)	3.46	0.36	.520**	.540**	.516**	.537**	0.23	.402**	.564**	1
Reflectiveness (RT)	2.64	0.27	0.06	.398**	.387**	.385**	.281*	0.22	.360**	.475**	1
Flexibility (FB)	3.44	0.27	.303*	.456**	.428**	.443**	0.2	.446**	0.16	.401**	0.23	1
Collaboration (CN)	3.03	0.57	.328*	0.14	0.00	.296*	−0.08	−0.03	.396**	.417**	0.22	0.1	1
Innovative Teaching (IT)	3.22	0.75	0.23	0.2	0.11	−0.02	0.09	0.18	−0.19	0.17	−0.24	.420**	−0.21

Note: **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed); *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

Cluster analysis was performed on ICALT and CETIT factors to explore how these factors were distinctively grouped together (i.e. ‘the degree of overlap of memberships among clusters, and the relationships of clusters to each other’ in Gorman & Primavera, 1983, p. 165). Factor analysis is inappropriate in this study because we did not assume two instruments have the same latent structures. The dendrogram in Figure 1 suggested that there were two clusters. Enthusiasm, Flexibility and Reflectiveness from CETIT and Clear and Structured Instructions, Intensive and Activating Teaching, Safe and Stimulating Learning Climate, Teaching and Teaching Learning Strategy and Efficient Organisation from ICALT formed the first cluster. The second cluster comprised Learner Engagement and Adjusting Instructions and Learner Processing to Inter-Learner Differences from ICALT, which cluster more closely with Collaboration and Innovative Teaching from CETIT. According to Ko (2023) and Ko et al. (2023), the first cluster could represent factors associated with effective teaching, while the second cluster group factors are more related to inspiring teaching as those group factors are emphasising on instructors’ perspectives of facilitating collaborative and innovative learning and teaching.

Figure 1. The dendrogram using average linkage.

Drawing upon the quantified results derived from hierarchical cluster and grouping analysis, we conducted a qualitative analysis of three featured lessons. This qualitative analysis served to enhance the elucidation of the cluster outcomes, thereby enriching the interpretation of the findings. Table 2 shows the selected areas of ICALT and CETIT for in-depth lesson analysis that highlights students’ learning engagement in the classroom environments through structured instructions, collaborative and adaptive learning, and flexible and activating teaching.

Table 2. The key themes related to ICALT and CETIT instruments for analysing videotaped lesson observations.

Keywords	Description
Small groups for engaging learning and purposeful instructions
Present and explain the subject materials	The teacher activates prior knowledge of learners and gives them staged instructions, poses questions which learners can understand, and summarises the subject material from time to time.
Giving timely feedback	The teacher makes clear whether an answer is right or wrong while students are answering questions and why an answer is right or wrong. The teacher gives feedback on the way in which learners have arrived at their answers.
Checking learners’ understanding of subject materials	During the presentation stage, the teacher asks questions that stimulate learners to reflect and checks whether learners understand what the lesson is about and whether they understand the subject materials provided.
Well-structured teaching	Vocation or work-related activities and assignments are connected to the materials presented during the presentation stage. The lesson offers a good variety of presentations, instruction, controlled practice, free practice, and so forth.
Collaborative learning and adaptive instruction
Collaborative learning	The teacher encourages students to work together and gives tasks/assignments to work on in groups. The teacher tells students how to share their work in a task and makes clear how students could help each other. The teacher asks students to do demonstrations together.
Offering weaker students extra instruction time	The teacher gives weaker learners extra study time and gives weaker learners extra instruction time. The teacher gives weaker learners extra exercises/practice and gives weaker learners ‘pre- or post-instruction’.
Adjusting instructions	The teacher allows for flexibility in the time learners get to complete assignments, lets some learners use additional aids and means, and gives additional instructions to small groups or individual learners.
Flexible and activating teaching
Flexible teaching	The teacher adjusts his/her teaching pace for some students and changes his/her teaching methods spontaneously to suit some students’ needs. The teacher gives students some opportunities to choose their preferred classroom activities and allows options for students in their own seatwork. The teacher allows options for students in their homework.
Stimulating learners to think about solutions	The teacher shows learners the path they can take toward a solution and teaches strategies for problem-solving and referencing. The teacher teaches learners how to consult sources and reference works and offers learners checklists for problem-solving.
Asking questions that stimulate learners to reflect	The teacher encourages learners to ask each other Qs and explain things to each other, asks learners to explain the different steps of their strategy, regularly checks whether instructions have been understood, asks questions that stimulate reflection and learner feedback, and regularly checks whether learners understand what the lesson is about.
Giving interactive instructions	The teacher promotes interaction between learners and interaction between teacher and learners.

Findings and discussion

Small groups for engaging students’ collaborative learning

The findings from classroom observations indicate that small groups in certain subjects encourage active participation and collaboration with purposeful instructions among students, which enables them to exchange ideas and practical knowledge in connection with their vocational field. Encouraging vocational students to participate in small-group learning cultivates an environment that nurtures collaborative learning and amplifies problem-solving skills (Dyer et al., 2015; Hoek & Seegers, 2005). For example, researchers propose that collaborative online learning situations have improved students’ vocational skills connecting with mechatronics education (Nasir et al., 2023; Słowikowski et al., 2018). Students in team-based learning demonstrate better performance and motivation (Lai et al., 2018; Schaap et al., 2016). In our findings, small group-based collaborative learning provides vocational students ample chances for hands-on exercises, simulations, and timely feedback with real-world problem-solving scenarios within their groups. In the context of automobile engineering training, the teacher or a teaching assistant usually provides students with demonstrations within a group setting, explaining the collaborative process involved in adding refrigerant to air conditioning systems. Concurrently, while delivering subject matter presentations, the teacher engages students by posing questions that prompt the activation of their prior knowledge, thereby facilitating a review of previously covered content. Therefore, small groups for vocational learning help promote a deeper understanding of vocational students’ subject matter and allow them to receive immediate guidance and assistance tailored to their specific learning needs (Schaap et al., 2011). The literature suggests that the establishment of small groups fosters an online collaborative learning environment among vocational students and stimulates students’ active engagement in real-world vocational scenarios (Hämäläinen et al., 2008; Hoek & Seegers, 2005; Qureshi et al., 2021). Within this framework, students are afforded opportunities to participate in discussions and collaborative project work by utilizing diverse digital tools and platforms.

Furthermore, this study demonstrates that the student simulation training activity in the cross-border e-commerce class incorporates a built-in tabletop software for training apprentices. This activity-based small-group learning approach enables students to improve their interactive learning experiences by seamlessly integrating subject knowledge with practical application. For example, students learn how to optimise online shop surfaces based on the frequency of product searching and how to manage product sales and stock status. Zitha et al. (2023) propose collaborative learning activities such as role-playing exercises and group projects that can improve participation and foster a more engaging learning experience. Other studies indicate that online training activities serve as catalysts for students to apply their vocational knowledge while simultaneously cultivating their problem-solving and decision-making skills (Dyer et al., 2015; Kuijpers et al., 2011). Students in small groups can build up a mock-up product promotion through online platforms, which fosters their online collaborative training. Paticularly, the enterprise-collaboration online training platform accelerates students’ practical learning trajectory within the course, which allows students to have the opportunity to engage in cross-border trading practice, develop sales skills and customer service competencies. The group-based training also enables students to understand the critical points of operational procedures, such as overseas purchasing, cross-border logistics, customs clearance, and electronic payment across borders. Other studies also prove that online small-group learning fosters an interactive learning environment for engaging students in their vocational studies Sharples, 2013; Zhao et al. Ko, 2023). Our findings on student-centred teaching methods in the electronic engineering class has a shift towards students’ hands-on skill training and the production of tangible outputs. Notably, the electronic products crafted by students consist of a diverse range of skill sets that can be attained through collaborative learning and output-oriented instructions. In summary, the observed collaborative learning activities align with the notion that a flexible classroom setting fosters more profound understanding and knowledge application in the exchange of ideas, which enables teachers to tailor pre-designed class activities to cater to the interactive learning requirements of students (Dillenbourg, 2013; Zhao & Ko, 2020).

Adaptive and purposeful instructions on students’ learning activities

The observation findings indicate that the technological platforms facilitate the teacher to adapt students’ learning content during cross-border e-commerce class activities. For example, the teacher applied the e-commerce simulation in a training session and allowed students to simulate completing a trade deal. In particular, the featured learning materials for cross-border e-commerce were designed independently according to different modules for easy adaptations in the learning program. For example, the targeted training content for international cross-border e-commerce platforms has inherent adaptability to facilitate students’ personalised learning experiences needs in mastering vocational knowledge and skills. The study findings align with the vocational teaching context in Taiwan wherein virtual reality technology stimulates students’ authentic immersion in task processing and interactive operations related to furniture training, and this immersive approach enhances students’ understanding of operational procedures in automated mechanical production (Lee, 2023).

Vocational teachers use prearranged activities to accommodate students’ learning behaviours within the context of automobile engineering training. When students encounter difficulties, they can receive supplementary instructions by using alternative training machines. Moreover, the teacher also offers students the flexibility to complete their training tasks by utilising supplementary resources such as the flow chart board of operating procedures or consulting a teaching assistant to help them work on their post-training reports. This exemplifies the adaptive and purposeful instructions within specialised vocational activities and highlights the emphasis on individualised learning and tutoring (Kenny & Pahl, 2009; Valtonen et al., 2012). de Bruijn and Leeman (2011) suggest that adaptive instruction concerning the learning materials requires that such flexible methods of instruction as digital and other self-instructive materials are available for students when they need support. For example, the teacher provided students staged instructions on machine handling to cultivate their practical skills in fostering active involvement among vocational students. The dialogic exchanges between the teacher and students indicate that students can easily follow the lesson and continue to proceed with practice after the teacher’s instructions with the first step of the machine operation.

Purposeful instructions in the vocational learning environment help students improve cognitive and practical skills. In this respect, teachers support students when the learning contents or course materials present problems in acquiring vocational competence. Similarly, an Australian case study found that teachers’ adaptation to flexible learning environments promotes different adaptations to classroom practice, such as integrating context and teaching practice, using teacher expertise across multiple class groupings and decreasing students’ direct instructions (Deed et al., 2019; Hoffman & Duffy, 2016). This study emphasised instructional practices that teachers tailored to students’ class activities through small-group collaborative learning. However, it is worth noting that the flexible physical learning space could facilitate additional collaborations for students’ activities and classroom engagement throughout the teaching and learning process (Schaap et al., 2011). This flexibility extends to online training activities incorporated into collaborative learning in the field of vocational education (Słowikowski et al., 2018).

Activating teaching and flexible learning environment

A flexible learning environment grants vocational teachers the ability to adapt interactive classroom activities (Zhao & Ko, 2020). Collaborative lesson planning and teaching, in turn, are characterized by the flexibility of the learning environment and the use of open-plan settings (Deed et al., 2019; Dillenbourg, 2013). Vocational teachers adjust their collaborative instructional practices based on materials or training platforms in specialised vocational subjects. Furthermore, they provide students with flexible time frames to complete their training reports and engage in classroom activities as the study posits that the integration of flexibility within vocational courses enables the accommodation of individual needs of diverse learning styles (Grace & Smith, 2001). Therefore, vocational teaching incorporates flexibility and allows for adjustments in classroom activities and teaching pace to accommodate students’ needs (Esmond, 2021). As an illustrative example, one of the participating teachers modified the lesson plan and teaching methods to allow students to select their preferred activities or group formations within the context of a cross-border e-commerce training class. Through active engagement in a participatory learning process including hands-on activities, problem-solving tasks, and real-world simulations, a flexible learning environment for students fosters their application of acquired knowledge, creativity and innovation in preparation for their future vocations.

The inherent flexibility within vocational learning empowers students to take the initiative to work collaboratively with their peers, fostering teamwork and effective communication. This observation implies that orchestrating opportunities for students to work with different individuals and collectively achieve shared goals can enhance their ability to navigate real-world challenges and adapt themselves to diverse working environments. The findings of this study align with the literature that a flexible learning environment can engage students in a deeper understanding of vocational concepts and their ownership of learning (Zhao & Ko, 2022; Zhao et al., 2023). Researchers have illustrated several key attributes of virtual learning environments, including the integration of emerging technologies and diverse pedagogical approaches, the flexibility of overlapping with physical environments, and the enrichment of classroom activities (Kuijpers et al., 2011). These findings suggest that personalised vocational learning pathways with incorporating technology can equip students with the necessary skills and knowledge to succeed in an ever-evolving world of work. Active teaching methods in vocational classrooms enable students to stay updated with industry trends. Active teaching also allows students to pose pertinent questions related to workplace situations and helps them reflect on their understanding of the current respective industries. In addition to active teaching, vocational teachers employ a range of strategies to foster problem-solving abilities, guide students to consult sources and reference materials and provide students with checklists to aid in the problem-solving process.

Conclusion and implications

This study highlights the significance of collaborative work-related learning within vocation-oriented pedagogy and demonstrates that teachers’ instructions during classroom-based activities have a notable influence on students’ engagement in vocational learning and future work preparation. In particular, vocational teachers prioritise collaborative classroom-based teaching activities that focus on vocation-oriented and adaptive instruction. Collaborative learning in higher vocational education has emphasised students’ participatory practices and co-working ideas within groups (Lai et al., 2018; Okolie et al., 2021). Thus, the significance of students’ application of hands-on skills forms a cornerstone of their vocational education in cultivating occupational expertise and entrepreneurial skills. Additionally, in adapting students’ work-related learning, teachers recognised the difference between a vocational classroom and workplace instructions and ensured more work-related class activities to engage students. It would be valuable to undertake an empirical study from vocational students’ perspectives on the impact of work-based instructional approaches on students’ learning situations, encompassing both classroom settings and enterprise internships.

The investigation into orchestrating interactions within vocational classrooms contributes to the theory and practice of vocational learning by expanding our knowledge of effective teaching strategies, practices, and the learning environments specific to vocational education. The results align with existing literature on individualized or adaptive instruction, indicating that vocational teachers modify small groups to enhance students’ vocational skills. Additionally, vocational teachers implement vocation-oriented activities that foster connections to real-life situations. As the literature states, the reform of cooperative independent learning with the integration of technology in higher vocational colleges (Liang & Dongfeng, 2021), adaptive teaching with individualised instructions plays a role in facilitating and improving the interactive classroom practice (Hoffman & Duffy, 2016; Sun et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2020). Regarding the impact on vocational students’ learning situations, vocational teachers facilitate flexible classroom-based teaching and training that aligns with enterprise requirements, and vocational teaching activities mainly focus on the development of vocational competencies tailored to professional needs, which links classroom-based teaching practice to students’ future workplaces. In the context of vocational students’ learning, effective orchestration of classroom discussions within specific discourse practices relies on both pedagogical approaches and the active involvement of teachers to create a flexible learning environment that fosters collaboration and personalised learning (Deed et al., 2019; Grace & Smith, 2001). Thus, the vocational classroom provides a distinctive learning setting that combines practical interactions with technology, serving as both the application of industry-relevant practices and the utilisation of simulation tools for the preparation of real-world workplace scenarios.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Yanmin Zhao

Dr. Yanmin Zhao is currently a Post-doctoral Fellow at the Graduate School of the Education University of Hong Kong. Her current research focuses on the professional learning of teachers, pedagogical practice and workplace learning in applied degree education. She is interested in the field of classroom research and the changing learning environment of vocational students. She is currently participating in research projects such as the ‘development of a training programme with the effective, reflective, and ethical use of Generative AI tools to support research writing’.

James Ko

Dr. James Ko is currently an Adjunct Associate Professor in the Department of Education Policy and Leadership at the Education University of Hong Kong. Before retiring, he was also the Associate Director of the Lau Luan-hung Charitable Trust Fund Asia-Pacific Centre for Leadership and Change Center. He holds degrees in linguistics, psychology, education, and a diploma in information technology and education. He participated in various large-scale educational leadership and teacher effectiveness research projects funded by the Hong Kong Research Bureau, ESRC, and DSCF in the UK, and received six research grants from the Hong Kong Research Grants Council and the University Grants Council.