Voices in peril: understanding English public speaking anxiety among university students in Bangladesh

Abstract

Public speaking is a less practiced issue in Bangladesh as it is not included in academic curricula in any tier of education. The fear of public speaking, especially in English, is common among many Bangladeshi university students. To better understand this matter, 19 in-depth interviews and four focus group discussions were carried out among public and private university students in Bangladesh, keeping gender, class, urban, rural, and regional variation in mind. This research integrates Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and Bourdieu’s concept of linguistic capital to examine how socio-cultural, institutional, and psycholinguistic factors influence public speaking anxiety among university students in Bangladesh. The findings show that educational institutions and socio-cultural issues impact students’ public speaking skills at the university level. In addition, psycholinguistic factors such as negative self-perception and linguistic fluency are the most common causes of fear of public speaking in English. The findings implicate that enhancing communication education across all levels and fostering supportive environments could mitigate this anxiety, potentially improving students’ academic and professional prospects. Further research engaging a wider population is necessary for policy formulation, which might facilitate the culture of public speaking among students of all levels of education.

Keywords:

• Bangladesh
• public speaking anxiety
• psycholinguistics
• socio-cultural barriers
• university student

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Abbas Pourhosein Gilakjani, English Language Translation Department, Islamic Azad University, Lahijan Branch, Iran

SUBJECTS:

• Educational Psychology
• Bilingualism / ESL
• Classroom Practice
• Education Policy & Politics
• Higher Education

Introduction

English public speaking in Bangladesh is rooted in its colonial past and neoliberalism in the 1990s. To understand it in depth, it is essential to trace back to the root of English education in colonial India. At the outset, English was introduced as a tool for “civilizing” the Indian people (Ghosh, 1995, p. 20). However, it eventually became integral to the education and social system as the British intensified the colonial process. The Charter Act of 1813 or East India Company Act of 1813, the constitutional affirmation of British rule by the Indian constitution, and the English Education Act of 1835 by Thomas Babington Macaulay, an orientalist scholar, played crucial roles in integrating English within the Indian subcontinent. Initially, the Indian masses opposed the Englishization of the Indian education system. However, the local elites gradually began to understand the value of English proficiency to ensure social mobility and status (Ghosh, 1995).

The British colonial rule ended in 1947, creating two independent nations—India and Pakistan, where English still maintained an official status in both countries, serving as a neutral language and a symbol of status (Kachru, 1978). In 1971, Pakistan was again divided into two countries: Bangladesh and Pakistan; in Bangladesh, the status of the Bangla language played a crucial role. However, English’s prestige and status remained the same in Bangladesh. There has been an attempt to highlight Bangla as the primary medium of instruction by the Bangladesh Education Commission (BEC) or Khuda Commission in 1972. However, it was never actualized (Chowdhury & Kabir, 2014). English has remained a priority for all the post-independence governments in Bangladesh. Nevertheless, the status of English was solidified in the 2010 National Education Policy, when the concept of "Compulsory English" was introduced across primary, secondary, college, and university education in Bangladesh, highlighting the practical value of English proficiency in the age of globalization (National Education Policy 2010, 2010). In addition, the policy states that English can be used as a medium of instruction besides Bangla at the tertiary level (National Education Policy 2010, 2010, p. 31). However, English has not been made mandatory.

Currently, there are three forms of schooling in Bangladesh: Bangla medium and English version (government, semi-government), English medium (private), and Arabic medium (semi-government and private). For tertiary education, the mediums remain the same. There are around 150 public and private universities in Bangladesh. About 50 public universities mainly use Bengali as a medium of instruction on nationalistic grounds (Karim et al., 2021), and madrasas (religious seminaries) use Bangla and Arabic. There are more than 100 private universities in Bangladesh, and their medium of instruction is English, though there is no such instruction in the government-formulated Private University Act 2010 (Rahman et al., 2019). Most private universities maintain class lectures in English, and students are also expected to deliver their class presentations at the university in English.

The reasons for public speaking anxiety in Bangladesh are related to the overemphasis on the Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA) and educational streams (Bengali medium, English medium, or Arabic medium) (Tabassum & Hossain, 2020). Other reasons are the fear of making mistakes, lack of confidence and negative perceptions (Ahamed et al., 2023), lack of practice, extra care from class teachers, introverted state of mind (Khan & Uddin, 2016), and mimicking the accent of native English speakers instead of keeping their pronunciation (Sikder, 2015). The importance of public speaking is undeniable when it comes to persuading others and building leadership and critical thinking skills that help students academically and career-wise. In this connection, we explored the current practices of public speaking at the tertiary level and how confident or anxious the students are regarding class presentations, discussions, and communication in the classroom and beyond.

While the literature provides valuable insights into public speaking anxiety among Bangladeshi university students, several drawbacks merit attention for a more comprehensive understanding and effective intervention strategies. The focus on educational streams (Bengali medium, English medium, or Arabic medium), as outlined by Tabassum and Hossain (2020), offers a starting point but lacks depth in exploring how each stream contributes explicitly to public speaking anxiety. A more detailed analysis of the curriculum, teaching methodologies, and assessment strategies within each stream could provide clearer pathways for addressing anxiety related to public speaking.

Ahamed et al. (2023) highlighted important psychological aspects like fear of making mistakes and lack of confidence. However, there is a gap in understanding the root causes of these fears and how they intertwine with cultural expectations and educational pressures. Additionally, interventions that could mitigate these psychological barriers have not been deeply explored.

Khan and Uddin (2016) discussed the lack of practice and an introverted mindset. However, they did not delve into how extracurricular activities could be leveraged to improve public speaking skills and reduce anxiety. Incorporating structured opportunities for practice outside the formal curriculum could be a vital area for further exploration.

Sikder (2015) raised an important point about mimicking accents, which touches on deeper issues of cultural identity and linguistic imperialism. However, this discussion does not fully explore the impact of these factors on self-esteem and the internalization of linguistic norms. Further research could investigate how cultural pride and linguistic diversity are promoted or hindered within educational settings and how this influences public speaking anxiety.

Across the literature, there is a notable absence of detailed, evidence-based intervention strategies that address the identified causes of public speaking anxiety. While the problems are well identified, research is needed into specific, actionable solutions that educational institutions, policymakers, and educators can implement.

Whereas most of the existing research has been carried out within a specific section of students, such as high school students (Ahamed et al., 2023; Khan & Uddin, 2016; Sikder, 2015), university students of a specific department (Tabassum & Hossain, 2020), or students from private universities only (Mobarak, 2020), we have taken both public and private universities to understand English speaking skills from a holistic point of view taking rural, urban, streams of education and other variables into account. In this research, we explore the significant socio-cultural and psycholinguistic causes that discourage university students from speaking in front of an audience. This exploratory study contributes to a deeper understanding of the multifaceted influences on public speaking anxiety among Bangladeshi university students. It highlights the need for integrating public speaking education across all educational levels to build confidence and competence in global communication skills.

Literature review

Different literature has identified public speaking anxiety into two broad categories—psycholinguistics and socio-cultural (Asif, 2017; Sadeghi et al., 2013). Psycholinguistic factors for public speaking anxiety can be of various forms. Daly et al. (1989) found that speakers with public speaking anxiety and self-consciousness are correlated. In other words, more self-conscious students suffer from more public speaking anxiety. On the other hand, low self-awareness and a focus on the setting tend to display less public speaking anxiety. Fenigstein (1979) claimed that self-conscious women tend to be more sensitive about the negative evaluation and response, and sensitivity directs their positive and negative reactions toward the evaluation.

Mobarak (2020) revealed that in Bangladeshi universities, the fear of public speaking results from the negative reviews of teachers and fellow students regarding English language speaking. Faruk et al. (2023) also found that fear of making mistakes is a critical issue in public speaking anxiety, besides lack of confidence and negative perceptions about speaking in front of elders. Other studies found that lack of practice, lack of extra care, introversion, fear of making mistakes, unfamiliar roles, humiliation, negative results, personal traits, audience interest, lack of language proficiency, and physical appearance were found as the reasons behind public speaking anxiety in Bangladesh (Bippus & Daly, 2009; Khan & Uddin, 2016).

As for social factors, Sellnow (2009), who studied US tertiary students, reported that when disclosing important information related to the speaker in a public speaking setting, both males and females are equally comfortable. However, in the geographical and social context, Behnke et al. (1987) found a discrepancy in terms of speakers’ perceived anxiety and audience-reported anxiety for speakers. In contrast, Martini et al. (1992) found that American and Asian speakers reported almost the same level of public speaking anxiety; perceptions of the typical audience vary as they said that Asian speakers had more public speaking anxiety than their American counterparts. Bodie (2010) highlighted the importance of operationalizing and conceptualizing different elements that led to public speaking anxiety and suggested that public speaking instructors should be careful and cautious when providing feedback to speeches, as well as the intensity of negative feedback and the timing of giving feedback. In terms of the impact of institutions on public speaking apprehension among college students about their preparation in high school (Dwyer et al., 2003) and the impact of interventions to reduce public speaking anxiety using participatory sketching (Rattine-Flaherty, 2014).

In the case of Bangladesh, Tabassum and Hossain (2020) claimed that CGPA and educational background also affect Oral Communication Apprehension (OCA) among undergraduate accounting and journalism students. They found no significant difference between the male and female participants. The results also suggest that CGPA has a negative impact and educational background has a positive effect on OCA; in other words, poor CGPA leads to poor public speaking, and previous education in a better school leads them to perform well in public speaking. From the socio-economic aspect, Baroi et al. (2020) found significant variation among Bangladeshi students with foreign language speaking anxiety based on the difference in residential area, socioeconomic status, parental education, and father’s occupation.

Conceptual scheme

Communication competency is socially grounded, as Vygotsky (1978) reminded us that language learning is a social phenomenon. He maintained that mastering language, be it the first or second language, is predicated upon the socialization process. As Vygotsky’s “Zone of Proximal Development, or ZPD, teaches us, learning happens in the presence of a knowledgeable other who plays the role of scaffolding for children to make them competent in communication or public speaking. Without knowledgeable others, students can hardly learn communication competency in their early stages. The difference between learning with the help of a knowledgeable other and learning without the help of a knowledgeable other is known as ZPD.

The importance of the knowledgeable others has also been cited in Gay’s (2002) concept of culturally responsive teaching, where a teacher will try to comprehend students’ prior cultural knowledge and experiences, which define their learning styles and self-abilities to attain specific goals. In other words, a teacher can form a culturally responsive teaching environment by imparting different cultures, languages, and traditions. Gay also proposed three dimensions of culturally responsive teaching, namely institutional, cultural, and instructional cover policy formulation, bridges between the academic institution and community, and teaching curricula, materials, and activities that are culturally oriented, historically grounded, and practically informed Gay (2018).

Both Vygotsky and Gay asserted that students cannot be taken as a homogenous entity in the classroom and cannot be given a one-size-fits-all type of education. Instead, teaching is personalized or individualistic. Based on each student’s learning capacity, a teacher will teach students who will learn delightfully and confidently.

Against this context, if students suffer from the opportunity to learn a standard language in their early lives, do not have an association with knowledgeable others, or do not get a learning environment at both school and home, many of them might not acquire language competency at their school or college level. As a result, at the tertiary level, they might suffer from the same lack of communication competency, which can create an inferiority complex or low self-confidence in students’ minds. This can work like a domino effect on their presentation and public speaking skills. Undoubtedly, other socio-economic and cultural factors contribute to self-esteem or self-confidence in their lives. All these deficits can work as communication apprehension¹ (McCroskey, 2009) in a student’s life.

Bourdieu (1991) introduced the idea of "linguistic capital" as the worth ascribed to a person’s mastery and strategic use of language in a social setting. Bourdieu (1991) positioned linguistic capital within his more comprehensive concept of cultural capital, including the skills, knowledge, and benefits that elevate one’s social standing. Specifically, linguistic capital is crucial in enhancing an individual’s social advancement and authority across various sectors, such as education, politics, and employment. When examining the anxiety associated with public speaking, Bourdieu’s notion of linguistic capital provides a distinctive perspective to explore its social underpinnings. Those possessing ample linguistic capital and who are thus confident in their linguistic capabilities and familiar with the communicative norms of their social environment tend to face less public speaking anxiety. In contrast, individuals with limited linguistic capital may endure greater anxiety stemming from real or perceived shortcomings in their linguistic abilities and apprehension over being judged negatively.

Methods

This research employed qualitative methodology to understand the subjective view of the participants. The data were collected between July 2021 and September 2021. We collected data from two public and two private universities in Dhaka, as it is the hub of most of Bangladesh’s public and public universities, representing students from different parts of the country. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions (FGD) were conducted using separate guidelines. We used purposive sampling to select specific students for both IDI and FGD to ensure male, female, public, private, and rural-urban students. We conducted in-depth interviews with 11 females and eight males. The in-depth interviews with students were conducted to learn about their personal experiences and perceptions of public speaking anxiety. Four focus group discussions (two FGDs with public university students and two with private university students) were facilitated among the students to understand their generalized views on various debated and common issues where arguments and counterarguments were raised regarding socio-cultural and structural issues. The typical length of a qualitative interview or FGD was around 60 min.

The interviews were taken in person and recorded using their system. Later on, the interviews were transcribed manually. The participants can be broadly categorized into two categories: public university and private university. Among the public universities, students from the University of Dhaka, the University of Chittagong, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, and Jahangirnagar University participated in our research. Furthermore, students from North South University, BRAC University, Independent University, Bangladesh, and International Islamic University Chittagong participated in our research among the private universities. The participants range from fresh graduates to freshers. They also study diverse subjects such as Computer Science and Engineering, Microbiology, English Linguistics, English Literature, Bachelor of Business Administration in Marketing, Architecture, Bachelor of Law, Economics, BBA in HR and Marketing, Public Administration, Pharmacy, Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE), International Relationship, Statistics and so. While in-depth interviews were conducted to understand personal accounts, FGD was conducted among the public and private male and female students to understand their opinions, agreement, and disagreement on various issues. While we took 19 IDIs (11 female and eight male), 32 students (17 female and 15 male) participated in four FGDs in which 16 members took part from public and 16 from private universities.

Ethical considerations

Ethics approval was obtained from the North South University Institutional Review Board/Ethics Review Committed (IRB/ERC) for this research. Participation in the interview process was voluntary, and their informed consent was ensured. The anonymity of our participants was guaranteed to ensure their safety and privacy throughout the research. Moreover, the participants were informed in detail about the techniques of storing, transcribing, analyzing, and publishing the collected data.

Data analysis

Interviews were recorded, transcribed in Bengali, and later translated into English. The data were thematically analyzed using the Atlas-ti software. The data were analyzed thematically. We adopted the open coding method, where all codes were generated directly from our interview. The interviews were then analyzed line by line and marked with the related codes as necessary. Then, the codes were categorized under specific themes. The themes were assessed and improved during this continuous procedure to reflect the facts correctly. The data inside each theme was examined and analyzed for patterns, linkages, and variances after the themes were decided upon. Table 1 illustrates the code labels, descriptions, and frequency of responses.

Table 1. Outline of the coding scheme.

Code Labels	Descriptions	Total Time Referred
Structural influence on public speaking
1. Impact of previous education (school, college) on public speaking at the university level	Investigates how past academic experiences influence public speaking proficiency at the university level.	Most impact: 48 No impact: 3
2. Frequency of public speaking (class presentation) at the university level	Evaluates the number of occasions students engage in public speaking activities, such as class presentations, at the university level.	Public University: 2–3 times/year Private University: At least one in every course or 8/10 times/year
3. Impact of extracurricular activities at the university level on public speaking	Explores the influence of non-academic university activities (clubs, sports, etc.) on developing public speaking skills.	Positive Impact: 47 No Impact: 4
4. Perceptions about the medium of Instruction at the university	Gauges students’ perspectives on the language used for teaching at university and its impact on their public speaking skills.	Positive impact of English medium: 45 Positive impact of English medium: 6
5. Role of gen ed and major courses on public speaking	Assesses the impact of general education and specific significant courses on developing public speaking skills at the university level.	Gen Ed Courses: Significant: 26 Insignificant: 25 Major Courses: Significant: 43 Insignificant: 8
6. Role of family members in achieving public speaking skills	Examines the role of family interactions and support in enhancing students’ public speaking skills.	Effective: 20 Ineffective: 31
7. Urban and rural context on public speaking	It looks into the difference in public speaking skills development in urban and rural educational contexts.	Urban: Better Opportunities: 51 Rural: Better Opportunities: 0
8. Gender and public speaking skills	Analyzes any potential differences in public speaking skills development based on gender.	Yes: 5 No: 46
Psycholinguistic influence on public speaking anxiety
1. Fear of being judged by others	Explores the influence of anticipated judgment from others on public speaking fear and performance.	Feel Significant Fear: 40 Feel No Significant Fear: 11
2. Judging others as an audience	Examines the perception and attitude of students towards judging others during their public speaking.	Often Judge Others: 39 Rarely Judge Others: 12
3. Perceived impact of linguistic fluency on public speaking	Assesses students’ beliefs about the influence of language proficiency on effective public speaking.	Significant Impact: 40 Insignificant Impact: 11
4. Impact of outfit on public speaking	Investigates the perceived effect of dressing style on public speaking confidence and performance.	Significant Impact: 34, Insignificant Impact: 17

Major findings

We identified two broad themes and 12 sub-themes to address the research questions. The themes and sub-themes are given below:

1. Socio-cultural and structural influence on public speaking

   • 1.1 Impact of previous education (school, college) on public speaking at the university level

     Although most participants were dissatisfied with their exposure to public speaking in their schools and colleges, almost everyone agreed that their school and college education and experiences were essential to function in university.

      One male participant from the rural setting said they did not have regular classes when he was in school. He has to go to private tutors to pass exams. So, he learned nothing about public speaking in school. He also added that the duration of college time (2 years) is minimal, and the syllabus is vast (extensive); therefore, he only focused on his studies during his college days. He only learned about public speaking during a marketing course at the university.

     Another female participant from a rural setting said:

     My school was very strict about getting good grades. We did not even get enough time to play with our friends. Hence, I always felt uncomfortable being in front of a large group of people, which has hampered my ability to perform well in university presentations.

     Another female student who brought up urban areas shared her opinion:

     In my case, my school has supported me as far as I can remember. We used to spend two to three hours weekly on extracurricular activities. My school encouraged me to participate in debates. Our schools also hired mentors to teach arguments in debates. They provided all kinds of support to the students regarding extracurricular activities, which helped us become better public speakers.

     Similarly, a male participant who completed his primary and secondary education in an urban area expressed satisfaction and appreciation for the school and college environment. He said:

     In school, we had some storytelling and other competitions. Some teachers encouraged us to talk in front of the class. That was uplifting, pushing me to share my opinions and views. I think school is the most critical player in shaping these (public speaking) skills.

   • 1.2 Frequency of public speaking (class presentation) at the university level

     When students were asked whether they had given a presentation at their university, most said they had. One male student from a public university said he had given a presentation at his university, but its frequency was less. A female student from another public university said they must give presentations only once or twice a year. On the other hand, students from private universities said they need to give presentations regularly. One male participant from a private university said he had given a presentation for a math course at his university. Another private university student said that presentations are more frequent. As for the importance of class presentations, most said that classroom presentations enhance their confidence and increase language proficiency and communication skills.

   • 1.3 Impact of extracurricular activities at the university level on public speaking

     Many participants stated that they participated in extracurricular activities to enhance their skills. A male student from a private university mentioned,

     “I do not get enough time to engage in other activities. However, I am a member of the Toastmasters club [which teaches leadership and public speaking through a global network of clubs]. I focused on that club because of my interest in English speaking.”

     A female participant from a public university said:

     I do the poetry recitation. At my school and college, I performed in every cultural program. However, I barely participate in the annual cultural program at the university. When it comes to public speaking, recitation helps. When I was in school, I had stage fear, but after frequently participating in small programs, I gained confidence, which helped me overcome stage fear. Nevertheless, I am socially introverted, so if I had never participated in those events from an early age, I might have never been able to talk in front of people.

     Some participants mentioned that they take part in extracurricular activities for self-development. One male participant from a private university said:.

     Regarding extracurricular activities, I have been a part of my locality’s youth committee. I have been elected as the chair of communication. We worked on normal socio-cultural activities for the year. Apart from all this, I have been a member of Toastmasters for the last four years, which has helped me tremendously to build my public speaking skills.

   • 1.4 Perceptions about the medium of Instruction at the university

     Participants from the group discussion shared that private university students were better at speaking English than public universities because of their curriculum. A female student from a public university claimed:

     The curriculum is designed in English in private universities, which is unlikely in public universities. They (private university students) have to learn English because they do not have any other option.

     Another male participant from a public university added:

     I think private university students tend to be corporate-oriented. Most of the students aim to work in the corporate sector after graduation. Hence, they feel it is essential to build such presentational skills.

     A female participant from a private university said:

     The first three semesters at my university were terrifying as I felt uncomfortable navigating in an English medium institution. However, now it seems okay. Moreover, this undoubtedly has helped me with my English-speaking skills and, as a result, in English public speaking.

   • 1.5 Role of gen ed and major courses on public speaking

     Most students opined that the major and general education or gen ed courses could significantly enhance public speaking skills. Courses related to communication, leadership and management courses, debate and argumentation courses, or performing and theatre courses can enhance public speaking skills. They mentioned that students from business and humanities majors get more opportunities to hone their public speaking skills; however, students from a science background think that their significant courses do not help them become better public speakers. One of the speakers who studied Microbiology at a private university said there is little chance for them to become better public speakers as most courses are either theory-based or lab-based. Their teachers believe that to become a better microbiologist, one does not need to become a better public speaker.

      Given that most of the public universities in Bangladesh do not have gen ed courses, most of the participants from private universities who study gen ed courses besides their major courses agreed that gen ed courses are beneficial for improving one’s public speaking skills. One female, for instance, who is a science major, said that she understood the importance of public speaking by taking gen ed courses. She also noted that the gen ed courses are very diverse, and they do classes with students from diverse backgrounds; as a result, they become more knowledgeable about different domains of knowledge and become confident, which are beneficial for becoming excellent public speakers and critical thinkers.

   • 1.6 Role of family members in achieving public speaking skills

     Most participants mentioned that they did not receive any encouragement from their family members to speak English spontaneously when they were young. They also added that families in Bangladesh discourage their children from doing anything except academic grades that come through cramming up books. During a focus group discussion, a male participant shared:

     I wanted to establish a student club to learn English speaking skills at my school. The timing of the club was weekly, one day after class. After one month, we closed the club because some parents complained that their children were getting into nonacademic activities, which might deteriorate their grades.

     A male participant, who belongs to a rural resident, shared his experience when he was asked whether he received any encouragement from his family to become a better public speaker. He said, “My father never encouraged me to speak correctly; I was scared to speak in front of him. Moreover, I used to talk in my native accent, for which my cousins often humiliated me.” Students born and raised in urban families reported their family members’ support in shaping their public speaking skills and building confidence. A female student from a private university who went to an English medium school stated her own experience:

     In my case, my school’s contribution was zero. My English skills came from my family and from watching movies and anime. I got bullied for my first public speech at school. Later, I practiced hard and got a prize for the same speech. My parents and brother helped me immensely in that case.

     A female participant from a private university, however, described how family plays a vital role in improving one’s confidence:

     In my case, I was given complete freedom. In other families, parents do not ask the child’s opinion. However, the confidence in speaking among many people comes from these kinds of practices in the family. It starts with a strong culture, a good upbringing, and behavioral change. If your family teaches you to dress well on different occasions, that will bring you confidence. If your family encourages you to learn English early, that can be a blessing.

     Another female participant from a public university said:

     I was sent to an English medium school to learn to speak well. In my home, I was also taught how to speak English. My mother has always been supportive; I always traveled with her wherever she went to Dhaka (from Chittagong) to attend any competition.

   • 1.7 Urban and rural context on public speaking

     Most participants reported that urban students were better at public speaking in English than in semi-urban and rural areas. A male participant shared:

     The schools in my hometown significantly lag in quality and resources compared to those in Dhaka. The infrastructure is not in good condition. The classrooms do not have enough accommodations. Most importantly, the teachers lack adequate training.

     A female participant from a private university who grew up in a rural area said, “I grew up in Brahmanbaria town. I do not think where I came from affected my public speaking skills. I speak better than most people who have lived in Dhaka.”

     Another female participant from an urban background said:

     I grew up in Chittagong city. I think, to some extent, the place where you belong matters. If I belonged to a village, I might not have all the access to the opportunities I received. For example, I completed my schooling at an English medium institution. I certainly would not have had any access to an English medium school. Then, I went to different coaching. So, I think it affected my public speaking.

     A male participant from a rural background said:

     I completed my SSC and HSC at Tangail in my hometown. I think my previous residence affected my public speaking skills. Although I can speak standard Bangla fluently, I face difficulties in pronunciation while speaking English. I guess I face those issues with an accent because of my native dialect.

   • 1.8 Gender and public speaking skills

     Most of the participants believe that there are no stark differences in performances in terms of gender differences; however, some of them mentioned structural barriers, such as social norms, values, and gender stereotypes, that impacted the performances of some participants.

     One of the female participants shared:

     I struggled to talk to people from the start because my family did not allow me to speak to outsiders from an early age [as I am a female]. So, I was always afraid and anxious while talking to someone who was not my family member. Even I used to feel uncomfortable talking to my relatives.

     Another female participant said:

     Not at all. Being female never affects someone’s public speaking skills. I do not think it works like this. Even if I do not consider my case, I have seen many girls who are great public speakers; on the other hand, some boys struggle with public speaking. Our society has advanced a lot. If a boy gets access to some resources, a girl also gets access to those. So, I do not think being a girl can affect someone’s public speaking skills. However, there are some exceptions. Some girls get suppressed by their families for family rituals and reputation everything. However, those cases have become the most exceptional nowadays because people realize the need for communication.

     A male participant from a private university said:

     I think I am better than my other female classmates. Even though I come from a rural place, I sometimes stand in public speaking, and I see many girls lack the confidence to speak up in class. Moreover, if you look at their background, you will find that most of them completed their previous education at reputed schools and colleges in Dhaka.

     Regarding the question of speaking in front of the opposite sex, most of the participants (15 out of 19) stated they had no problems communicating with the opposite sex. One male participant from a private university said:

     I have never thought of this particular thing while talking to someone. Gender was never a concern for me. The thing that I care about is the personality of the opposite person. Her character may influence my speaking comfort zone, but it is not her gender.

      One female participant from a private university said, “I never had any problem communicating with the opposite sex because my parents never taught me to judge people by gender. They always taught me to judge people by their quality, their talent, for their personalities.”

      Although most people do not have any issues, some may feel uncomfortable, especially when speaking with unknown people, regardless of gender. A female participant said, “I am comfortable if she is known, but I cannot talk if she is a stranger. I cannot speak because I am shy.”

      At the same time, a few participants found it uncomfortable to talk to the opposite sex. One male participant said, “It has always been challenging for me [to speak with the female]. My school and collegehave been tough, but after getting into the Toastmasters club, I have overcome that shyness a little.”

     Regarding the uncomfortable feeling, one male participant said, “Sometimes I hesitate, and sometimes I do not. It depends on whom I am talking to and their personality.”

2. Psycholinguistic influence on public speaking anxiety

   When it comes to personality and public speaking, most participants said that they are ambiverts because their personality changes based on formal and informal situations and the familiarity and unfamiliarity of the audience. However, many participants mentioned being introverted, which is connected to negative self-perception and lack of socialization in the family. Only a few participants said they were extroverted, given their socialization and education system, especially those from English-speaking backgrounds. In addition, other factors such as fear of being judged by others, fluency, and adequate knowledge of the subject matter are crucial to excel in public speaking. Many students reported that “nervousness” hurts their speaking skills. Some also mentioned that “mindfulness” and “dressing up” are necessary to boost public speaking morale.

   • 2.1 Fear of being judged by others

     Many participants firmly believe they are not good enough and fear being judged, criticized, or doubted their ability to talk effectively. For instance, a male participant said everyone focuses on discovering his mistakes whenever he delivers a speech. One student said that he is very conscious of the audience. He feels the audience is watching and noticing his every move, so he becomes nervous. Another male participant said the audience observes his accent, appearance, facial expression, and everything. Another male participant said, “Whenever I deliver a speech in English, it makes me nervous because I feel that someone judges my English.” Another male participant said, “After delivering a speech in the class, when I went to my friends for feedback, they could not say anything. Most probably, they did not even hear my speech correctly.”

   • 2.2 Judging others as an audience

     Most participants thought that the issue of being judged by others comes from the fact that, as an audience, they also judge others. In other words, speakers also judge others when they are in the audience’s seats. Among various things, speaking style, topic, logic, body language, and confidence are prominent when they judge others. One male participant, for instance, said that whenever he listens to someone, he notices their speaking style and the topic the speaker covers in their speech. Another male participant said he saw the speaker’s speech’s relevance to the event and logic. Again, another male participant said that he noticed the speaker’s body language first and then concentrated on the content of the speech. He believes body language is an essential part of public speaking. Another male participant said that he sees to what extent the speaker is confident.

   • 2.3 Perceived impact of linguistic fluency on public speaking

     Most participants reported that linguistic fluency is crucial in public speaking, enabling speakers to express their thoughts and ideas clearly and coherently. It also enhances the speaker’s confidence and credibility, which allows them to engage the audience and help overcome speaking anxiety. Participants mentioned that based on their medium of instruction at the school or college level, they feel comfortable in that particular language but face anxiety in other languages. In other words, English medium students reported being comfortable speaking in English but not Bengali. The same is true for Bengali medium students who are uncomfortable speaking English. One male participant said:

     I feel language is one of the significant factors in public speaking. Language, pronunciation, and tone are everything that matters in public speaking. I prefer English for my public speaking because Bangla pronunciation is much more complex than English pronunciation. Besides, my school and college were English medium, so I am weak at Bangla speaking

     One male participant said, “Linguistic fluency impacts a lot. Having a grasp of your linguistic skills can bring you favorable outcomes regarding public speaking.”

     A female participant mentioned her opinion on accents. She said:

     Even though I know I can speak quite well, I think the person in front of me is more capable when they have an English-medium background. So, I feel shy and nervous about speaking with them, especially since their English pronunciation is much more defined than ours, which is why we do not feel confident

     Another female participant said:

     Language skills are essential to new public speakers’, especially knowing how to transition from one sentence to another. However, if you know, generally speaking, the basics, it does not matter much. Undoubtedly, it complements your speech, but it is not the most crucial element of your speech.

      In contrast, a Bengali medium student said having a good grasp of linguistic skills creates a good vibe in our public speaking. He is comfortable speaking in his mother tongue, Bengali. Another male participant said that his mother tongue is Bengali, and his previous education was in Bangla, so he is more comfortable speaking in Bangla than in English.

      Bengali medium students also suffer from vocabulary shortages. One male participant said he struggles to find meaningful words while delivering a speech. Another participant noted that vocabulary is the biggest problem for public speaking English.

   • 2.4 Impact of outfit on public speaking

     Many participants reported the impact of public speaking, especially in building self-confidence, shaping audience perception, changing body language, and capturing audience attention. As one male participant said, he feels more comfortable delivering his speech when well-dressed. Another female participant said that in Bangladesh, people judge you primarily for your dress, and your skill comes later, so it matters. Another male participant said everyone should dress formally or adequately according to the event where he or she will give a speech. In contrast, some participants mentioned not being bothered about clothing regarding public speaking. As one male participant said, he believes one should never judge a book by its cover. Another male participant said that he never wears a formal dress for class presentations but secures good scores. He always focuses on his presentation because the content is the most crucial part of the presentation, not the dress.

      The results of this study closely adhere to the foundational ideas proposed by Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and Bourdieu’s analysis of linguistic capital, highlighting the complex interplay between socio-cultural, institutional, and psycholinguistic elements about the apprehension felt towards public speaking. Reflecting Vygotsky’s insights on the importance of social interaction and guidance from more experienced individuals in the learning process, the research findings reveal how the lack of formal training and mentorship in educational and family environments plays a crucial role in escalating students’ fears of public speaking. Moreover, through the lens of Bourdieu’s concept, the research elucidates the uneven distribution of English language skills—an essential form of linguistic capital—among students from varied socio-economic statuses and educational backgrounds, such as urban versus rural or those from different education mediums. This discrepancy significantly influences their confidence and anxiety levels in public speaking scenarios. Therefore, the study validates the theories proposed by Vygotsky and Bourdieu and applies them to the nuanced context of public speaking anxiety in Bangladeshi universities, showing how socio-cultural and educational systems can either hinder or support the cultivation of effective public speaking and linguistic abilities.

Discussion

The findings from this study suggest that several socio-cultural, institutional, and psycholinguistic factors influence public speaking skills in the context of Bangladesh. Socio-cultural factors such as family support, urban and rural contexts, and comfort level when speaking with the opposite sex can also significantly impact public speaking skills. Institutional factors such as medium of instruction, extracurricular activities, and cultural activities are crucial in helping students develop their public speaking skills. Psycholinguistic factors include a lack of confidence in speaking English, fear of making mistakes, and negative evaluation.

Socio-cultural impact

Public speaking and communication are essential skills that take time to be built and nurtured, especially from a young age. Bourdieu (1991) reminded us that language acquisition is not limited to what Chomsky (1965) referred to as an “ideal speaker-listener and homogenous speech community, who knows its language perfectly” (Chomsky, 1965, p. 3); instead, it is predicated on socio-cultural and economic conditions and competency (Bourdieu, 1991, as cited in Grenfell, 2011, p. 441). Bourdieu also discussed the importance of academic discourse, which differs from the family setting. In the academic discourse, the importance of the teacher is crucial in learning, corroborating Vygotsky’s ZPD (Vygotsky, 1978) and Gay’s culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2018).

Our findings show the lack of ZPD and scaffolding or infrastructural supports in school and college education, known as the bedrock of learning (Vygotsky, 1978). As for socialization, family plays the most vital role in building public speaking skills; however, our findings show many students did not get their family support to learn English, let alone public speaking, particularly from rural areas. These findings align with Akram et al. (2020), who tried to understand parents’ emerging roles in enhancing their children’s speaking skills in Pakistan. According to their findings, most parents are not directly encouraging and supporting their children to learn public speaking. However, a smaller portion of exceptional parents are motivating and helping their children to learn English and speak fluently. The outcome of those children is very impressive. Most of them are confident about their public speaking ability.

It is difficult to define public speaking prowess in terms of gender. In some countries, cultural norms may favor male students over female students in public speaking, while the opposite may be trustworthy in other countries. Additionally, the quality of education in a particular country can affect the public speaking ability of both male and female students. However, in developing countries, men typically receive better prospects than women, and as a result, girls are behind in society (Jayachandran, 2015). Interestingly, our findings revealed that gender played little to no role in public speaking or lack of opportunities due to gender differences. Therefore, it is a matter of skills building and practicing to develop one’s public speaking and communication skills. This study and its findings entirely validate and corroborate that. However, this finding conflicts with an investigation by Marinho et al. (2017), who claimed that they observed fear of public speaking primarily in females, especially those who do not engage in public speaking activities.

This is a common issue in many South Asian countries, including Bangladesh, where some people feel comfortable speaking with the opposite sex. This can be due to cultural, religious, or societal norms discouraging open communication between the opposite sex (Rosy & Islam, 2019). As per our findings, most participants were comfortable and confident speaking with the opposite sex, although some still felt uncomfortable or hesitant. Nevertheless, this could be due to the cultural and societal norms that discourage open communication between genders, which led them to create this psychological barrier. A similar result was found by Perveen (2018) in her study among female and male students at the University of Karachi, Pakistan. The study confirmed that there is no effect of the gender of the audience on the anxiety level of students during public speaking. However, they found that female students got more anxious than males while giving a speech in front of an audience.

Our findings on the impact of urban and rural contexts revealed that the students from a rural setting faced many challenges, such as lack of infrastructure, lack of guidance, the accent of their dialect, etc. As a result, they struggled to underperform in public speaking compared to the students belonging to urban and semi-urban settings. Kornilov et al. (2016) found similar results in the context of Russia. They aimed to perceive the difference between English as a foreign language (EFL) learning and public speaking approaches between children from urban and rural. Their study revealed that Russian-speaking rural children significantly underperformed compared to urban children based on a linguistic, grammatical, and composite measure of general language development. Furthermore, they observed corresponding depression and adverse effects on rural children due to their underperformance.

Institutional impact

After family, educational institutions are where a person gets shaped and groomed for the future (Reay, 2009). As a child spends most of his or her time at school, educational institutions are responsible for developing students’ public speaking skills (Arends‐Kuenning & Amin, 2004). Most of our study participants claimed that their school and college did not have a significant role in developing their public speaking skills because public speaking is neither included in the syllabus nor extracurricular activities.

Urban schools and colleges emphasize extracurricular activities that help students develop public speaking skills compared to rural students (Ahmad et al., 2019). Because public speaking is not included in school and college curricula, students do not feel encouraged to learn English as teachers do not emphasize it (Sinha, 2001). Therefore, students who predominantly studied in Bangla medium schools begin learning about public speaking in English at the university level, as this skill is rarely taught in their previous educational curriculum. The inherent nervousness about public speaking in English is amplified by the students’ fear of the language (Phillips, 1992), which impacts their performance at the tertiary level in writing and speaking, significantly limiting effective communication skills (Ara, 2020). If schools emphasize and focus on that, it would better prepare their students for the future (i.e., their tertiary education).

When it comes to a private university and public university, private university students get more exposure to public speaking because of their university club culture, competition, seminars, symposiums, and regular class presentations compared to public university students, who barely have to give any presentations at the university. Cultural activities impact a student’s life, especially when it comes to building skills for communication and public speaking (Abdikarimova et al., 2021). Though most of our participants were not engaged in any cultural or extracurricular activities, they recognized the importance of cultural activities, which impact communication and public speaking.

Psycholinguistic impact

Based on the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) by Horwitz et al. (1986) and Sadighi and Dastpak (2017) concluded that “fear of making mistakes,” “fear of negative evaluation,” and “lack of vocabulary knowledge” were the main factors that caused anxiety among students. Öztürk’s (2009) observation from the perspective of the Turkish EFL context also aligned with our findings. He found that pronunciation, immediate questions, fears of making mistakes, and negative evaluation were the prevalent causes of EFL speaking anxiety. This research reveals that most students feel nervous during speech because they are usually concerned about the audience’s judgment.

Though shyness was not marked as an essential element in public speaking in our findings, others found it necessary. In their study, Ibrahim and Shahabani (2020) found that students were hesitant, shy, afraid to speak out in class, and fearful of making mistakes while expressing their viewpoints verbally. They marked lack of experience and negligence from professors or teachers as reasons.

Another significant finding was the linguistic competency or the participants’ perception of their lack of it. Most participants agreed that linguistic efficiency is vital in building and sustaining one’s confidence while speaking. Linguistic incompetency sometimes leads them towards the fear of being judged by others, which is why most students who do not have a good grasp of linguistic skills try to avoid English public speaking. Fear of peer judgment is the most mentioned reason why students do not want to face public speaking (Grieve et al., 2021).

The findings explicitly connect to the literature reviewed in the introduction by addressing the multifaceted influences on public speaking anxiety among Bangladeshi university students, specifically about socio-cultural, institutional, and psycholinguistic factors. The study’s outcomes emphasize the considerable influence of socio-cultural and institutional elements on the anxiety associated with public speaking, which aligns with Vygotsky’s theory of social development and Bourdieu’s theory of linguistic capital. The evidence points out the critical role played by familial encouragement, the distinction between urban and rural backgrounds, and the presence (or absence) of educational initiatives focused on public speaking and mastery of the English language in developing students’ self-assurance and public speaking skills.

The analysis of institutional factors influencing public speaking anxiety aligns with the initial literature review’s emphasis on the educational system’s role in shaping linguistic competencies. The finding corroborates the observations made by Rahman et al. (2019) and Karim et al. (2021) regarding the medium of instruction and its influence on students’ comfort and proficiency in English public speaking. It also extends the findings of Tabassum and Hossain (2020) on the significance of educational streams and CGPA on students’ public speaking anxiety, offering a nuanced understanding of how institutional practices and curricular emphasis (or lack thereof) on public speaking and English language proficiency contribute to students’ anxiety levels.

Similar to the initial literature review, the study’s findings underscore the importance of psycholinguistic factors such as fear of judgment, lack of confidence, and linguistic fluency contributing to public speaking anxiety. The research demonstrates how negative self-perception and the perceived need to meet high linguistic standards, likely influenced by the historical prestige of English, lead to heightened anxiety among students. This aligns with Daly et al.'s (1989) findings on the correlation between self-consciousness and public speaking anxiety, suggesting that personal and societal expectations around language proficiency play a critical role in shaping students’ experiences.

Conclusion

Students in Bangladesh face socio-cultural, institutional, and psycholinguistic barriers leading to public speaking anxiety. Primary and tertiary academic curricula should include communication and public speaking courses and class presentation activities to address this matter. At the tertiary level, regardless of public and private universities, gen ed courses should be introduced to enhance communication, public speaking, and critical thinking skills. The policy should make public speaking mandatory from primary to tertiary level regardless of Bengali, English, and Arabic mediums of education. The National Curriculum and Textbook Board (BCTB), which is responsible for the development of curriculums, production, and distribution of textbooks at primary and secondary education levels in Bangladesh, can implement the recommendation of including public speaking courses in the school and college curricula. At the same time, the University Grants Commission (UGC) of Bangladesh can implement public speaking courses in the university curricula so that all the public and private universities take the matter seriously and effectively.

In addition, a peer education system of public speaking could be introduced, and high-performing students could teach other students how to overcome their barriers to public speaking. Above all, teachers and guardians should be made aware of the importance of public speaking, which will enhance students’ leadership skills and advance career and job prospects in the age of globalization and the fourth industrial revolution.

No doubt, the study on English public speaking anxiety among university students in Bangladesh offers valuable insights but has limitations that affect its broader applicability. Focusing primarily on students from Dhaka, it might not fully represent the diverse experiences of students from other areas of the country. Based on interviews and discussions with a small group of students, the research provides depth but limits how much we can apply these findings to all university students nationwide. By concentrating on university students, the study may miss out on understanding how public speaking anxiety develops from a younger age, potentially overlooking early intervention opportunities. Also, while rich in detail, the study’s qualitative approach lacks the broader perspective that quantitative data might provide. Finally, without tracking changes over time, it is hard to see how public speaking anxiety evolves with different interventions.

Further research is necessary to assess the success of diverse methods to mitigate the anxiety linked to public speaking. It is also essential to undertake longitudinal studies to monitor learners’ evolution of public speaking anxiety over time. This would illuminate how various intervention strategies across educational stages (primary to tertiary) influence the development of confidence and public speaking skills throughout a student’s academic path. In addition, it is crucial to explore the impact of digital and virtual reality tools on teaching public speaking competencies. Focus on assessing the effectiveness of online public speaking programs and virtual simulations in alleviating anxiety and enhancing performance is necessary. Finally, exploring the variations in public speaking anxiety among students across different educational streams (such as English medium, Bengali medium, and madrasa education) and shedding light on how the educational background influences this anxiety is necessary.

Author’s contributions

Harisur Rahman: Conceptualization, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – Original Draft, Writing – Review & Editing. Sakir Mohammad: Data Collection, Data Analysis, Writing-Review & Editing. Sayeda Tasnuva Swarna: Data Analysis, Methodology, Writing – Review & Editing.

Disclosure statement

None declared.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Harisur Rahman

Harisur Rahman is an Associate Professor in Media, Communication, and Journalism Program at the Department of Political Science and Sociology at North South University, Dhaka, Bangladesh. He earned his Ph.D. in Anthropology from the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Before that, he obtained a second master’s in Journalism, Media, and Communication from the University of Dhaka. He has published scholarly articles in international peer-reviewed journals such as the Journal of International Communication, Asian Ethnology, South Asian Film, and Media. His book, based on his doctoral dissertation, “Consuming Cultural Hegemony: Bollywood in Bangladesh,” was published by Palgrave Macmillan in 2019. His research interests include communication, cultural studies, and visual and media anthropology. He can be reached at [email protected].

Sakir Mohammad

Sakir Mohammad is a graduate of North South University (NSU), Dhaka. He holds an Executive Master’s degree in Policy and Governance and a Bachelor of Arts degree in English, with a concentration in Linguistics. He is the Editor in Chief of the NSU Journal of Student Research and the Research and Development Officer of NSU's Media and Journalism program. His research interests include media, political communication, education policy, etc.

Sayeda Tasnuva Swarna

Sayed Tasnuva Swarna is a master’s student at North South University (NSU), Dhaka. Before that, she worked for a renowned research institute known as icddr,b for about ten years as a researcher. She co-authored articles and published them in international journals such as PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. Her research interest includes public health, social communication, and culture.

Notes

1 Communication apprehension refers to reticence, shyness, unwillingness to communicate, and stage fright due to the lack of communication competency (Allen & Bourhis, 1996). McCroskey (1977) defined communication apprehension as “the fear or anxiety related to either actual or expected communication with another person or persons” (p.78). McCroskey took speech communication anxiety and communication apprehension interchangeably. While speech communication anxiety and communication apprehension can be interpersonal or group communication, our use of “public speaking anxiety” is more focused on the fear of speaking to an audience, crowed or a gathering as a speaker.