Enhancing job satisfaction among heads of secondary schools: exploring perspectives

Abstract

Heads of Secondary Schools (HSS) grapple with a multitude of challenges that directly influence their job satisfaction, subsequently affecting their overall job performance. This study delves into the experiences of HSS in Tanzania, aiming to identify strategies for improving their job satisfaction. Employing a mixed methods research approach, the study blends qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques. A cross-sectional survey was conducted to gather quantitative data, complemented by interviews and focus group discussions to capture qualitative insights. The study encompassed 78 HSS, comprising 20 from private and 58 from public secondary schools. Quantitative data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), while qualitative data were thematically analyzed. Insights from HSS underscored the importance of introducing compensation benefits, providing essential leadership training, addressing political interference in academic matters, and granting autonomy in decision-making to enhance job satisfaction. Based on the study findings, appropriate recommendations were provided.

Keywords:

• Job satisfaction
• job dissatisfaction
• job satisfaction levels
• head of secondary school
• teachers’ job satisfaction
• job performance
• Private school

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Sedat Gumus, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

SUBJECTS:

• Educational Psychology
• School Leadership, Management & Administration
• Secondary Education

Introduction

The global education system grapples with numerous challenges, largely stemming from teacher dissatisfaction with their job. Various studies have investigated the root causes of job dissatisfaction among teachers (see e.g Cabrera & Estacio, 2022; Ali & Anwar, 2021; Madigan & Kim, 2021; Kazungu, 2016). These inquiries aim to discern methods to foster teacher satisfaction, thereby retaining them and enhancing overall educational quality. Additionally, Boniface (2016) highlighted that between 2003 and 2013 in Tanzania, 337,771 secondary school teachers received training and enrollment.

However, by 2013, only 73,407 (comprising 49,552 males and 23,855 females) were accounted for in secondary schools across the country (ibid). As a result, 264,364 teachers decided to leave their positions due to a myriad of job dissatisfaction concerns. Furthermore, between 2014 and 2016, an alarming trend emerged: ‘over 1,500 public secondary school teachers resigned annually due to various job dissatisfaction issues and transitioned to alternative pursuits’ (President’s Office-Regional Administration & Local Government [PO-RALG], 2017, p. 44).

In daily basis, HSS face a diverse array of demands. Legislators and taxpayers seek increased services, industries demand skilled workers, parents advocate for the resolution of social issues, and the public expects enhanced examination scores. The mounting responsibilities have significantly heightened the stress levels in the role of HSS (Tanzania Heads of Secondary Schools Association [TAHOSSA], 2017).

The demands placed on HSS have evolved, yet the profession has not adapted adequately to address these changing needs, resulting in visible tensions among HSS (Madigan & Kim, 2021). Newcomers to the role often grapple with understanding the expectations and necessary actions required to effectively lead a secondary school. The surge in responsibilities for HSS in recent years has not only intensified the stress associated with their roles but has also discouraged teachers from pursuing these positions. Notably, Tanzania lacks induction courses in management for newly appointed HSS, further complicating their transition into leading secondary schools (TAHOSSA, 2017).

Heads of Secondary School now shoulder increased responsibility for student performance, all while navigating a growing array of government regulations (ibid). Furthermore, in Tanzania, overcrowded classrooms, safety concerns, and a shortage of science teachers compound the challenges faced by HSS. The demands of the role, coupled with the extensive time commitment it entails, serve as significant barriers to entering school headship (Mwita & Hassanal, 2022). This trend is particularly evident among HSS in advanced level secondary schools, especially among women, resulting in an immense strain on their time and energy.

Unfortunately, the issue of job satisfaction, crucial for retaining HSS and expanding the candidate pool, remains unaddressed by District Secondary Education Officers (DSEOs) and school boards. Merely increasing pay fails to attract individuals to the field (Blackman & Fenwick, 2000). Unless HSS receive adequate recognition for their expanding responsibilities, DSEOs will continue to struggle to retain the necessary cadre of HSS.

Statement of the problem

Acknowledging the pivotal role of a satisfied HSS in fostering commitment and sustainable work practices within the institution is crucial. The absence of research involving HSS has perpetuated educational challenges. Solutions proposed and actions taken often overlook the crucial input of HSS, who are responsible for translating overarching policy statements into daily school operations. This persistent lack of research on HSS correlates with low levels of job satisfaction among them. Consequently, it contributes to issues such as substandard performance, impartiality, absenteeism, and burnout—a result of unsatisfactory job aspects (Maforah, 2015). This study aims to fill this gap by exploring suggestions among heads of public and private secondary schools in the Tanga region to enhance their job satisfaction levels. The primary inquiry revolves around understanding HSS perspectives and recommendations aimed at improving their job satisfaction

Educational policy in Tanzania and job satisfaction

The Tanzanian education sector lacked its own policy until 1995 when the formulation of the Education and Training Policy (ETP) took place. Prior to this, education development plans were derived from government or ruling party directives, such as the 1967 Arusha Declaration and the 1974 Musoma Resolutions. With the advent of the ETP in 1995, it became the guiding framework for future educational development and provision in Tanzania, aiming to steer the country’s education and training into the 21st century. According to Kazungu (2016, p. 3), ‘education policies are a series of statements that both describe and prescribe a course of action’ (p. 3). These statements significantly influence the functioning of schools and shape the experiences of students and staff within them. The 1995 ETP notably recommended the implementation of remuneration incentive packages and ongoing professional development for teachers, aiming to attract and retain high-quality educators in the long term. Specifically, it emphasized the responsibility of the government, school managers, and owners to ensure improved terms of service and working conditions for all teachers (United Republic of Tanzania [URT], 1995)

Conceptualizing job satisfaction

Job Satisfaction refers to the extent to which individuals either appreciate (satisfied) or dislike (dissatisfied) with their roles. Employees’ attitudes toward their jobs encompass various aspects like the work environment, status, and overall job experience (Cabrera & Estacio, 2022). Consequently, job satisfaction has become a highly debated subject among researchers and scholars globally.

The concept of job satisfaction has gained substantial attention from scholars and researchers since the industrial revolution in Western Europe, extending its relevance worldwide. Presently, it holds significance in the management of virtually every institution. In the realm of education, researchers place considerable emphasis on job satisfaction among teachers, recognizing its crucial role in enhancing educational effectiveness. Therefore, achieving job satisfaction, especially among teachers and heads of secondary schools, stands as a pivotal pursuit in educational endeavors

Job dissatisfaction

According to Amin (2021), job dissatisfaction encapsulates negative feelings or unfavorable attitudes held by workers toward their jobs. Yean et al. (2022), aligning with Amin’s perspective, reported that when individual employee expectations remain unmet, it often leads to dissatisfaction, subsequently resulting in job turnover and burnout. The repercussions of job dissatisfaction are substantial, as elucidated by Madigan and Kim (2021), including increased absenteeism, attrition, and various misconducts within the workplace. In the specific context of this study, job dissatisfaction among HSS may prompt lapses in their daily responsibilities. Consequently, this could impede the country’s education system from achieving its expected outcomes.

Theoretical framework

Herzberg’s two-factor theory

This theory posits that individual job satisfaction and dissatisfaction stem from two distinct sets of factors: motivators and hygiene factors. Motivational factors revolve around intrinsic aspects of an employee’s job and significantly impact their performance. They encompass elements like recognition, achievement, career advancement, the nature of the job itself, and the level of responsibility. When these factors are fulfilled, they tend to motivate employees and contribute to job satisfaction. However, their absence doesn’t necessarily cause dissatisfaction; instead, their presence amplifies positive work attitudes and boosts job satisfaction.

On the other hand, hygiene factors pertain to the external environment surrounding the job, including company policies, working conditions, salary, personal life, supervision, rewards, compensation, job security, status, and interpersonal relationships. These factors are external to the job itself and can lead to dissatisfaction if inadequate; yet improving them alone does not lead to job satisfaction. Instead, they primarily serve to mitigate dissatisfaction rather than actively foster satisfaction. It is essential to note that the opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction; rather, it is non-satisfaction. Enhancing hygiene factors may reduce dissatisfaction, but it takes the fulfillment of motivational factors to elicit satisfaction. Therefore, satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not simply opposing ends of the same spectrum.

Traditionally, the belief persisted that enhancing elements like salary, supervision, or company policies would directly elevate employee job satisfaction. However, Herzberg’s perspective diverges significantly. According to Herzberg (1966), improving hygiene factors—such as those mentioned—doesn’t inherently enhance job satisfaction; rather, it primarily prevents dissatisfaction. Contrary to traditional views, Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory emphasizes that job satisfaction is predominantly influenced by motivators. These include aspects like recognition, opportunities for achievement, career growth, and job responsibilities. Enhancing these motivators actively contributes to job satisfaction and a positive work attitude.

Importantly, the absence of motivators doesn’t necessarily lead to job dissatisfaction; rather, it results in a lack of job satisfaction or motivation. For instance, if an employee lacks recognition or opportunities for achievement, it does not directly cause dissatisfaction with their job. However, the absence of these motivators makes it less likely for them to feel motivated or satisfied in their role.

The emergence of the Two-Factor Theory sparked debates among scholars who both supported and opposed its principles. For instance, Baroudi et al. (2022) conducted a study testing the Two-Factor Theory by examining teachers’ perceptions regarding the factors most strongly linked to their job satisfaction levels. Despite intrinsic factors showing higher overall means, their correlation analysis revealed that extrinsic factors, such as working conditions and professional development, were more significantly associated with teachers’ job fulfillment. This aligns with existing literature suggesting that fulfilling teachers’ extrinsic needs in less developed countries tends to elevate their job satisfaction levels (Dicke et al., 2020; Justina, 2017). Similarly, in a survey study involving 343 government secondary school teachers and principals, Solangi et al. (2015) found that teachers expressed satisfaction with their monthly salary, fringe benefits, autonomy and the administrative support provided to them. Similarly Horwood et al. (2022) uncovered that school autonomy policies lead to increased teachers’ autonomy and job satisfaction. These findings contribute to the ongoing discourse on the significance of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors in shaping job satisfaction among educators.

Certainly, these studies shed light on the critical role of organizational factors in shaping teachers’ job satisfaction. Marsh et al. (2023), Cansoy (2018), Polatcan and Cansoy (2019) and discovered that transformational leadership and a robust school culture, characterized by support, trust, justice, and effective communication, were pivotal in ensuring teachers’ job satisfaction. This aligns with several meta-analyses and empirical studies linking organizational climate to job satisfaction across various professions, as highlighted by (Alkhyeli & Ewijk, 2018; Lee et al., 2022; Maforah, 2015). Emphasizing satisfaction with the school environment becomes crucial in retaining teachers within the educational system. Additionally, Dicke et al. (2022), Darmody and Smyth (2016), found that better-quality school environments also contribute to fostering job satisfaction among school principals.

Given that the climate of a school has been associated with student achievement (bin Abdullah, 2021), and considering the influential roles teachers and principals play in cultivating a productive learning environment (Collie & Martin, 2017), it is reasonable to assume that job satisfaction among educators is also linked to student achievement. This underscores the interconnectedness of organizational climate, job satisfaction, and the overall educational outcomes within a school setting.

Studies aligned with Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory emphasize the significant impact of motivational factors on employee job satisfaction. Tirana et al. (2023), Guoba et al. (2022) conducted research encompassing employees in both public institutions and private organizations, affirming that motivational factors significantly influence job satisfaction, whereas hygiene factors do not. Similarly, analyses focusing on the relationship between employee motivation factors and job satisfaction within mining companies revealed a substantial correlation between motivation factors and employees’ satisfaction. Specifically, the findings highlighted that both nonmaterial motivators related to work and material motivators significantly influence satisfaction (Janovac et al., 2021). These studies further reinforce Herzberg’s assertion that while hygiene factors primarily prevent dissatisfaction, it is the presence of motivational factors that significantly drive job satisfaction among employees in various sectors, such as public institutions, private organizations, and specific industries like mining.

Absolutely, Baroudi et al. (2022) and Sadeghi et al. (2015) align with the Two-Factor Theory, emphasizing the correlation between employees’ motivation levels, their satisfaction, and subsequent job performance. These studies contribute to the ongoing discourse surrounding the theory’s applicability in understanding workplace dynamics.

Considering the arguments from both supporting and opposing studies related to the Two-Factor Theory, it becomes apparent that the relationship between job satisfaction, work performance, and job motivation is not fixed or straightforward. Instead, it varies based on contextual conditions. This implies that while Herzberg’s theory sheds light on crucial factors influencing job satisfaction and performance, these connections need nuanced interpretation based on specific circumstances and context.

Furthermore, the issue of job satisfaction is not uniform across cultures or environments. Cultural and environmental factors play significant roles in shaping perceptions and experiences related to job satisfaction. It is essential to recognize that job satisfaction is contingent upon the perceived value of job outcomes directly associated with task completion. In essence, the realization of positive outcomes is intricately linked to the value placed on the rewards received as a result of completing tasks within the work context.

Research gap

Empirical research on job satisfaction among heads of public and private secondary schools in Tanzania remains scarce, highlighting a critical gap in our understanding of this important facet of educational leadership. While numerous studies have delved into the influence of school leadership on teachers’ job satisfaction, there is a notable dearth of research specifically focusing on the satisfaction levels of school heads.

For instance, Mgaiwa and Hamis (2022) conducted a mixed-method study exploring the dynamic interplay between school principals and teachers’ expectations, shedding light on rural Tanzania’s context. Similarly, Mwita and Hassanal (2022) investigated the impact of school leadership experiences and working environments on teachers’ satisfaction in the Kilimanjaro and Coast regions. Other researchers, like Modest and Onyango (2021), examined the influence of workplace conditions on teachers’ job satisfaction in public secondary schools in Bukoba Rural District, Kagera Region. Furthermore, Kyangwe et al. (2023) study explored strategies to enhance teachers’ job satisfaction in secondary schools in Butiama District, Mara. While these studies offer valuable insights into various factors affecting teachers’ job satisfaction, they collectively underscore the need for more targeted research specifically addressing the job satisfaction of HSS.

Therefore, there is a significant gap in the literature concerning the direct examination of headteachers’ job satisfaction in Tanzanian secondary schools. Addressing this gap is crucial for developing comprehensive strategies to improve educational leadership and ultimately enhance the quality of education in Tanzania.

Research methodology

Study area

This study focused on the Tanga region, situated in the northern zone of Tanzania alongside Kilimanjaro, Arusha, and Manyara regions. The selection of Tanga was driven by its consistently poor performance in the national Certificate of Secondary Education Examinations (CSEE) compared to the other regions within the zone. With Tanzania comprising 31 regions, Tanga recurring low rankings in the CSEE further emphasized its educational challenges. For instance, in the 2016 CSEE, Tanga was ranked 27th, whereas Kilimanjaro secured the 5th position, Manyara the 16th, and Arusha the 17th out of 31 regions of Tanzania (National Examinations Council of Tanzania [NECTA], 2018). Similarly, the 2017 rankings showed Kilimanjaro at 1st, Arusha at 8th, Manyara at 12th, and Tanga at 24th out of the 31 regions (ibid). This persistent pattern underscores Tanga’s continual struggle in achieving competitive results in the national form four examinations compared to its counterparts in the Northern Zone. This discrepancy sparked the necessity for further research into the region’s educational landscape.

Research approach and design

This study was descriptive in nature employing a mixed research approach. The decision to employ this approach was for triangulation purpose but also to counterbalance the weaknesses inherent within methods. Therefore both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. It is evident that when you pair the quantitative findings derived from the data with the rich, contextual insights of the qualitative data, you end up with a multi-dimensional view of your research topic (Creswell, 2012). It is argued that for generalization purpose, descriptive survey bank on large scale data collection from a large number of people (Yin, 2011). The design was deemed relevant since it was believed that it would enable the researchers to capture and summarise groups’ responses and be able to collect their opinions, feelings, perceptions and suggestions on various ways to enhance HSS job satisfaction among heads of secondary schools. Furthermore, the design was deliberately chosen for easy collection of multi-sourced data using various methods from a wide population in a short period of time.

Target population

The study encompassed 78 heads of both public and private secondary schools within three randomly chosen councils from the Tanga region. The eleven councils in the region were systematically coded from 0001 to 0011. Each code was inscribed on a small card, folded, mixed thoroughly, and then placed in a wide, open container. Subsequently, three cards were drawn at random, revealing Tanga City Council (TCC), Korogwe Town Council (KTC), and Korogwe District Council (KDC) as the selected councils. Among these three randomly chosen councils, there existed a collective sum of 21 private and 62 public secondary schools.

Study sample and sampling technique

The study’s sample size of 78 individuals was determined using a formula derived from Cohen et al. (2000), offering a 95% confidence level with a 3% sampling error, as outlined in Table 1 from Cohen et al. (ibid). This sample, representing 78 heads of secondary schools (HSS), was drawn from a population of 83. Within this sample, 58 heads were from public secondary schools, while 20 were from private secondary schools across the aforementioned councils.

Table 1. Sample size, confidence levels and sampling error.

Size of population (N)	Sampling error of 3% with a confidence level of 95% Size of sample population (S)	Sampling error of 5% with a confidence level 90% Size of sample population (S)
50	48	43
75	71	59
83	78	64
100	92	74
500	341	176
1,000	517	213

Adapted from Cohen et al. (2000, p. 104).

The study employed a proportional stratified sampling technique to select 78 heads of secondary schools (HSS) from a population of 83 HSS. To ensure representation across public and private secondary schools within each council, the total population of HSS was stratified into three groups, with each council constituting a stratum. Within each stratum, two sub-strata were created—one for private and one for public secondary schools. To randomly select the sample while maintaining proportional representation according to the population in each council, cards were created, each representing a secondary school labeled with numbers ranging from 0001 to 0083. These cards were folded, mixed, and placed in an open container. Random selection from these cards yielded a total of 78 secondary schools as respondents for the study. The distribution of the selected schools among the councils was as follows: TCC—24 public, 16 private (total 40); KTC—8 public, 3 private (total 11); KDC—26 public, 1 private (total 27), summing up to the study’s targeted 78 HSS respondents. All 78 questionnaires distributed to these HSS were completed in full, representing a 100% response rate from both public and private HSS. These completed questionnaires were subsequently collected for comprehensive analysis. Within 78 HSS, 12 HSS from private schools and 12 HSS from were randomly chosen to provide qualitative data through interviews and focus group discussions.

Data collection tools

The study employed open ended questionnaire, face to face interviews and focus group discussions to collect data. This was in line with Yin’s perspective (2011) that underscores the importance of selecting data collection tools based on the research problem, available resources, and desired accuracy. The questionnaire was divided into two sections. Part One focused on gathering personal information about the respondents, including gender, age, marital status, educational level, and whether the school was publicly or privately owned. Part Two, consisting of question number 6, specifically aimed at soliciting suggestions from the HSS regarding ways to enhance their job satisfaction levels (Appendix 1). The questionnaire was used in this study to enable the collection of quantitative data and it was easy to administer to a good number of respondents and allow them to respond in a private setting. The questionnaire were administered to 78 respondents from both private and public secondary schools and demanded the respondents to outline various ways to enhance job satisfaction among heads of secondary schools.

Unstructured face to face interviews and focus group discussions were used to collect qualitative data. This method was preferred because of its flexibility as it allows both the researcher and respondents to get into a deeper conversation, get clarification and probe more on the opinions of the respondents with regard to the various ways HSS think would enhance their job satisfaction. Interviews involved 6 HSS, from private and 6 HSS from public secondary schools. In total, there were 12 interview sessions for HSS from private and public secondary schools. Focus group discussion allowed for collaborative discussions and shared opinion among respondents in a very open manner. There were two focus group discussions, one for HSS from private schools (FDD1) and one for HSS from public secondary schools both aiming at soliciting various ways to enhance job satisfaction level among HSS. Each focus group discussion comprised of 6 HSS. Therefore, those HSS who were interviewed were not involved in the FGDs and vice versa to allow for wide number of opinions from participants.

Data analysis procedure

Data analysis was ongoing throughout the data collection phase and thereafter. In this study, quantitative analysis was conducted using descriptive statistics. Firstly, data pertaining to respondents’ demographic information (questions 1–5 in Part One of the questionnaire) were coded. These coded responses were then inputted into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 20 software for analysis. Secondly, the qualitative data derived from Part Two (question 6), focusing on the perspectives of HSS regarding strategies to enhance job satisfaction levels, underwent a transformation into quantitative data. It is argued that quantifying data is not about diminishing its value and complexity but rather is about providing another lens through which to interpret it (Creswell, 2012).

Each suggestion provided was translated into a numerical format using tallying methods. This involved assigning a symbol (/) to every instance a suggestion with a similar theme emerged, with each symbol counted as one. The resulting data were presented in the form of quantitative monodata, utilizing frequency tables. Furthermore, separate frequency tables were generated for public and private HSS, summarizing their respective data. Subsequently, the information from question 6 was integrated and coded in alignment with the study’s objectives and design, aiming to provide a comprehensive and robust overview of the complete study phenomenon, specifically focusing on job satisfaction.

Thematic analysis offered a study framework for exploring qualitative data by pinpointing relevant themes. This study adhered to a comprehensive process comprising six key stages: immersing in the data, initiating initial coding, unveiling overarching themes, scrutinizing them, defining and labeling, and finally, crafting the report (Yin, 2011). Employing thematic analysis for qualitative data conferred notable advantages, particularly in streamlining the interpretation of primarily narrative and descriptive data.

Ethical issues considerations

The researchers secured the necessary clearances and permit to conduct this study. Initially, they obtained a research clearance letter from the Vice Chancellor of the institution where one researcher works, while the other is pursuing a PhD. Subsequently, they engaged with authorities in the Tanga region, acquiring permits from the Tanga Regional Administrative Secretary (RAS) and the District Administrative Secretaries (DAS) of Tanga Urban and Korogwe.

Additionally, the researchers obtained specific research permits from key officials: the City Executive Director of Tanga City Council, the Town Director of Korogwe Town Council, and the District Executive Director of Korogwe District Council. These permits facilitated access to engage with the Heads of Secondary Schools in their respective regions.

Regarding participant consent, the researchers’ ensured informed consent was obtained by verbally explaining the study’s purpose to the participants. Furthermore, participants filled out an Informed Consent Form, emphasizing the confidentiality of the information provided and its exclusive use for the study’s purposes.

Throughout the research, utmost care was taken to ensure the anonymity of the respondents. The questionnaire’s introductory section (Appendix 1) explicitly stated the omission of any identifying information, including names and school names. This directive was strictly adhered to during the entire data collection phase. Confidentiality remained a priority throughout the process. To maintain discretion, the questionnaires were personally administered by the researchers, preventing any disclosure of information to teachers or other HSS. Subsequently, during the data analysis phase, the completed questionnaires and interview transcripts were securely stored in the researcher’s briefcase, accessible only to the researcher. Furthermore, digital copies were stored on the researcher’s personal computer, protected by a password, ensuring that access was restricted solely to the researcher.

Findings and discussions

The objective of this study was ‘to explore HSS views on various ways to enhance HSS job satisfaction’. Through questionnaires, interview and focus group discussions, HSS were asked to give out their suggestions on various ways to enhance their job satisfaction. The resultant analysis unveiled the total number and percentages of suggestions made by HSS for each of the suggested specific job facet. These findings are presented in in Figure 1, illustrating the proportions of HSS advocating for particular improvements in their work environment to boost job satisfaction levels. During the analysis and presentation of the quantitative data, each finding was supported by the qualitative data (Table 2).

Figure 1. HSS suggestions in view of promoting their job satisfaction levels.

Source: Field data.

Table 2. Detailed information of the respondents (N-78).

S/NO	Parameters	Variable	Frequency	Percentage (%)
		Public	58	74
1	School	Private	20	26
		Total	78	100
		Male	45	58
2	Gender	Female	33	42
		Total	78	100
		Single	24	31
3	Marital status	Married	53	68
		Widowed	1	1
		Total	78	100
		Below 35	17	23
4	Age	35-45	34	44
		45-55	21	28
		Above 55	4	5
		Total	78	100
		Below 5	31	40
5	Years of office tenure	5-15	38	49
		15-25	9	11
		Total	78	100
		Diploma	2	2
6	Qualification	Bachelor	60	77
		Masters	16	21
		Total	78	100

Source: Field data.

Introduction of compensation and fringe benefits

Through open ended questionnaire it was evident that largest percent (40%) of HSS recommended priotising compensation and fringe benefits, emerging as the most frequently suggested improvement. This data was equally complemented with those obtained from the interviews and focus group discussion. The analysis showed three areas in which HSS would benefit through the introduction of compensation and fringe benefits.

Recognition and value

Participants reported that fair compensation and fringe benefits would make them feel more valued and appreciated which consequently will contribute to their job satisfaction as said in this quotation:

In my view, additional compensation such as bonuses and allowances can significantly uplift morale in our work environment, especially with the mounting pressure and extended hours beyond the standard workday. Unfortunately, the significance of fringe benefits tends to be undervalued. A part from our basic salary, there is a lack of acknowledgment for the numerous responsibilities we shoulder. It is imperative that authorities address this matter promptly to enhance motivation and support within the HSS community (HSS1, Interview1, PrivateSchool1)

Creating financial security

Heads of secondary schools underscored the significance of financial security in their professional lives. They contended that sufficient compensation and comprehensive fringe benefits would afford them a sense of stability and peacefulness, lessening financial pressures and thereby enhancing job satisfaction.

…the management really need to take care of our finances through tangible compensation and fringe benefits. We have to pay school fees for our kids, pay for accommodation, transport and other social services. It becomes so stressful if there is no compensation. If introduced, there will be stability among HSS, reduce financial burden and enhance our satisfaction towards our responsibilities (HSS2, FGD1, PublicSchools)

Motivation and engagement

The findings illuminate the crucial significance of compensation and fringe benefits in motivating and engaging school heads in their roles. The acknowledgment and proper recognition of their contributions emerged as pivotal motivators, fostering heightened job satisfaction and a stronger commitment to their responsibilities. This trend was clearly evidenced in the following instances: ‘Most of us will always work hard knowing that there will be additional income as a reward a part from the salary’. (HSS1, Interview7, PublicSchool1)

Uncovering HSS talent and retention

Participants underscored the significance of implementing competitive compensation packages and appealing fringe benefits to attract and retain talented individuals in leadership roles within secondary schools. They emphasized that offering competitive compensation and benefits was imperative for recruiting and retaining qualified school heads, thus contributing to enhanced overall job satisfaction and organizational success. This sentiment is reinforced by the following quote:

There a lot of talented leaders in our schools. However, it becomes difficult to uncover these talents if they are not seen and appreciated for the work they do. Introduction of compensation and other rewards will also help to retain better leaders and enhance their job satisfaction. (HSS3, FGD1, PrivateSchools)

This findings are in line with Hertzberg’s duality theory of job satisfaction (Herzberg, 1966), which propose that compensation and fringe benefits are regarded as hygiene factors that, when absent or inadequate, can lead to job dissatisfaction. The outcomes of this study echo the findings of Justina (2017) and Tarafdar et al. (2021) who revealed similar findings.

On the contrary, Guoba et al. (2022) study contradicts the findings of the current research. Guoba’s study underscores that moral values and activity take precedence in fostering job satisfaction, whereas elements like fringe benefits, working conditions, and social status were deemed to have an insignificant impact on teachers’ job satisfaction.

The results of this study suggest that, among various job facets considered, the introduction of compensation and fringe benefits emerges as the most frequently cited factor that would notably enhance job satisfaction among HSS in the surveyed secondary schools. However, it is noteworthy that in different contexts, compensation and fringe benefits may not hold the same weight in motivating HSS in their roles. According to Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory (1966), a range of intrinsic and extrinsic factors can influence job satisfaction beyond mere compensation considerations. Hence, while compensation and fringe benefits are crucial, a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of job satisfaction is essential. Employers are encouraged to adopt a holistic approach that addresses various aspects of job satisfaction to effectively engage and retain talented educational leaders.

Leadership training

The findings of this study underscored the significance of leadership training, with 23% of the surveyed HSS suggesting the implementation of leadership training programs. It was uncovered that the distinction in prerequisites for headship appointments between public and private secondary schools in Tanzania is notable. While public school Heads typically require a minimum of seven years as ordinary teachers before qualifying for headship (PMO-RALG, 2014), the criteria in private schools might differ. Often, school owners’ vision and other unspecified grounds serve as the basis for headship appointments (TAHOSSA, 2017). Therefore many HSS in private schools appear to be less experienced and exposed to challenges that they cannot deal with hence they end up being stressed and dissatisfied as explained:

Heading a school is not a joke. It takes a wise man, decisive and self confident to be able to deal with the school day to day challenges. I have been a head of school for two years. I have gone through a lot and I wish I would have been trained to understand the details of heading a school. (HSS5, Interview5, PrvSchool5)

The findings further showed that, among 78 surveyed HSS, Only 32 (28 from public and 6 from private) secondary schools got a chance to attend in-service training on leadership. This is only 40% of all of the surveyed HSS. The rest, have never been in any leadership training a part from the leadership modules they studied during their formal teacher education training. This had a significant impact in their job performance. ‘I studied few modules on management and leadership when I was doing my undergraduate studies. I have never been to any leadership seminar while in-service’. (HSS2, Interview7, Public School2)

Participants further expressed that with proper training, HSS would feel more confident in their abilities to lead effectively. This sense of competence could positively impact job satisfaction by reducing stress and uncertainty in their role as extrapolated: ‘Well I think regular training would help us boost our confidence and ability to manage our task effectively’. (HSS3, Interview 3, Private School3)

Participants further added that leadership training programs would offer opportunities for continuous learning and skill enhancement, which could lead to their greater job satisfaction. Feeling supported in their professional growth could boost morale and engagement as said: ‘Things do change, the technology, the curriculum, the methods which needs us to upgrade our skills in regular basis to make us more engaging in our daily responsibilities’ (HSS3, Interview9, PublicSchool3)

Furthermore participants expressed that their job satisfaction can be enhanced by training programs that are aligned with the school’s vision and goals, help HSS feel more connected to their work and purpose. When leaders see the direct impact of their efforts on achieving broader objectives, it can enhance job satisfaction.

When we say there should be leadership training we mean those which align with the school mission and vision. Those will help us as leaders first of all to feel more active and connected to our job but also help us to see the impact of our daily efforts. (HSS4, FGD2, PublSchools)

HSS confirms that leadership training could impact their job satisfaction, by offering avenues for enhancing skills, advancing professionally, and nurturing meaningful relationships. Leadership training initiatives could empower HSS to excel in their roles. When administrators feel competent, confident, well-supported, and aligned with institutional goals, they tend to experience heightened job satisfaction. Consequently, this could significantly strengthen the overall success and effectiveness of the school.

This aligns with Baroudi et al. (2022) research, which highlighted the correlation between extrinsic factors—such as working conditions and professional development—and teachers’ overall job fulfillment. The parallel between these findings emphasizes the importance of investing in leadership development programs for HSS, especially considering their impact on job fulfillment.

Security of office tenure

The findings from the questionnaires revealed that 19% of HSS advocated for the implementation of secure office tenure to provide assurance in their roles. Establishing clear and definitive school headship contracts between employers and HSS could significantly enhance their confidence and stability within their positions. These findings align with Dalkrani and Dimitriadis (2018) assertion that the presence of secure office tenure fosters greater organizational loyalty. Moreover, Lekić, et al. (2019) research delving into the impact of office tenure insecurity on employee sentiments and performance further supports this notion. Their study highlighted that insecurity in office tenure negatively affects organizational dedication and employees’ overall performance. Therefore, advocating for clear and secure office tenure through established contracts could notably encourage organizational loyalty, enhance dedication, and potentially elevate the performance of HSS.

The interviews and focus group discussions revealed consistent themes among the participants. A significant number of HSS emphasized the importance of secure office tenure, citing its potential to offer them a profound sense of stability and continuity in their professional roles. They expressed that such stability would empower them to pursue long-term strategies and initiatives without the looming concern of abrupt termination or reassignment. This sentiment was echoed through the following representative quotes:

You see although we are here today, we don’t know about tomorrow. It happens most of the time especially in these private schools, the decision to hire, terminate or keeping someone in a position relies on the hand of the school manager. Once he/she is not happy with you whether for official or personal reason, she may decide to terminate/demorte you from the job at any time. This hinders us from having long term strategies and initiatives because of fear of termination or demortion. (HSS6, Interview12, PublicSchool 6)

Participants stressed the direct correlation between the security of office tenure and their overall job satisfaction and well-being. The assurance of ongoing employment alleviated stress and anxiety stemming from job insecurity, enabling school heads to concentrate more effectively on their duties and responsibilities.

…If you are assured that you have stable continued employment, you fill more satisfied and automatically you will focus on your duties. Job insecurity causes a lot of anxiety and stress as you should constantly be ready to fetch for another job. (HSS5, FGD1, PrivateSchools)

Additional participants underscored that secure office tenure would foster the cultivation of trust-based on relationships among staff, students, and stakeholders. School heads observed that the continuity afforded by tenure security would enable them to forge rapport and credibility, potentially fostering a positive work environment. The following quote exemplifies this perspective:

Our relationship with our employer, other teachers, students and other stakeholders depend on how long we are serving the institution. The guaranteed office tenure can help us to have positive relationships with other teachers, students and the community hence create positive work environment and better performance in our job (HSS5, Interview11, PubSchool5)

These findings suggest that HSS from both private and public schools often grapple with considerable uncertainty regarding their positions, significantly contributing to job dissatisfaction. Herzberg’s theory (1966) accentuates the role of job security as a hygiene factor that, when lacking, triggers job dissatisfaction among employees. It is evident from these findings that, HSS operate under heightened uncertainty regarding their roles and endure low office security tenure due to the absence of clear statutory contracts for position stability. This has resulted in instances where some public HSS have been unfairly demoted by District Secondary Education Officers (TAHOSSA, 2017).

Similarly, private HSS face analogous challenges concerning uncertain job security, encountering instances of unjustifiable demotions by school owners (ibid.). These uncertainties and the absence of robust contractual guidelines contribute significantly to job dissatisfaction among both public and private Heads of Secondary Schools in Tanzania.

Refraining political interference from the academic affairs

The findings of this study indicated that 10% of HSS expressed the view that politicians, including village chairpersons, local government ward councilors, and members of parliament, should refrain from interfering in the academic and professional affairs of schools. These findings resonate with Dicke et al. (2020) and Junior (2020), which highlighted the clash between HSS' professional perspectives on educational issues and the views held by the community, parents, and school boards. Consequently, such conflicts often subject HSS decisions on day-to-day school activities to unnecessary tensions among the HSS, school boards, and parents (ibid).

It was evident through focus group discussion that HSS in public and private schools often experience frustration due to political interference in their professional roles, leading to significant job dissatisfaction. The following quotes illustrate:

Most of the time we are being interfered in our activities. In this country, education and policy is inseparable. There have been instances where the government introduce policies and agendas that need to align with education with no or little awareness of the HSS as the main implementers of the agendas. Often this create a lot of stress and job dissatisfaction (HSS2, Interview8, PublicSchool2)

Another participant added ‘To date there is no clear demarcation between the operations of the local leaders and the schools with regard to management and ownership of the school’. (HSS3, Interview9, PublicSchool)

This finding is supported by the report of TAHOSSA (2017) indicating that the concept of community school ownership remains poorly understood by a majority of citizens, resulting in unwarranted interference in school affairs by political leaders. Instances have been reported where local government ward councilors and village chairpersons mobilize parents to obstruct activities within schools, such as cultivating in school farms or participating in extracurricular activities. This lead to a lot of dissatisfaction among HSS.

These findings suggest that in Tanzania, politics is part and percel of the education system. Politics influence the curriculum, the materials, assessment and the entire process of education. Although some policies gives direction on how to implement the curriculum, unnecessary political interference can compromise the integrity of education by prioritizing political agendas over academic rigor and impartiality. Curriculum content, teaching materials, and assessment standards may be influenced to align with political ideologies rather than educational best practices.

Provision of autonomy in decision making

The study findings indicated that the least percent (8%) of HSS recommended a provision of autonomy regarding decision-making on school-related matters. In the same vein, face to face interviews revealed that HSS did not have a full-fledged autonomy in their decisions as evidenced in the following quotes:

See we still do not have autonomy in most of the decision we have to undertake. For example, issues of curriculum design, budget allocation, hiring and firing of teachers, and navigating the landscape where administrative directive operates. All these indeed challenge the smooth running of daily activities and lower our morale to work (HSS4, Interview10, PublicSchool)

Another HSS added:

We, as educational leaders, shoulder significant responsibilities that directly influence student achievement. Unfortunately, crucial decisions affecting our school’s success often lie with top managers, some of them lack a deep understanding of our school’s context and the challenges we confront. Consequently, their decisions may not align with our needs and may prove ineffective. (HSS4, Interview4, PrivateSchool4)

Effective decision making

Secondary school heads indicated that granting autonomy would enable them to align decisions with their vision and values, cultivating a deeper sense of ownership and responsibility for their schools’ outcomes. This ownership is expected to substantially enhance their job satisfaction, as they become more personally invested in their school’s success. Horwood et al. (2022) asserted that providing autonomy facilitates efficient and prompt decision-making to address emerging issues and opportunities, reducing the influence of bureaucratic hurdles in the decision-making process.

Increase flexibility

It was reported that provision of autonomy would provide school heads with the flexibility to adapt strategies and policies according to the unique needs and challenges of their schools. This flexibility will not only enhance their job satisfaction but also would contribute to more effective decision-making processes. This was evident through the following quote: ‘We need to be free and less dictated to effectively adapt the strategies and exercise policies to suit the needs of our schools according to context’. (HSS2, Interview8, PublicSchoo2)

Enhance professional growth and development

School leaders highlighted that autonomy would enabled them to pursue professional growth opportunities and implement innovative practices without undue bureaucratic constraints. The ability to exercise autonomy in decision-making processes will positively influence HSS sense of professional fulfillment and job satisfaction.

These findings suggest that while the decentralization of secondary education to local councils in Tanzania aimed to empower grassroots autonomy, the reality differs significantly. Heads of secondary schools find themselves constrained, lacking significant autonomy over student and teachers’ affairs. Heads of secondary schools express frustration over their limited authority to approve or reject teacher transfers, often facing situations where teachers are mandated to move to other schools despite shortages in their own institutions (TAHOSSA, 2017).

Conclusion

The burgeoning responsibilities faced by HSS in Tanzania have notably escalated stress levels within their roles (Tanzania Heads of Secondary Schools Association [TAHOSSA], 2017). As the demands on HSS continue to evolve, the profession has not sufficiently adapted to meet these changing needs, resulting in evident tensions among HSS (Alhazmi & Nyland, 2010). Entrants to this position often grapple with understanding the expectations and essential actions required to effectively lead a secondary school. The recent surge in responsibilities for HSS has not only heightened the stress associated with their roles but has also dissuaded teachers from pursuing these positions, leading to diminished job satisfaction.

Understanding that job satisfaction is contextually determined, it is vital to consider the viewpoints and suggestions of HSS when exploring factors that motivate or enhance their job satisfaction. It’s crucial to note that HSS job satisfaction holds significant importance, not only for their improved job performance but also for student achievement, which ultimately contributes to the socio-economic development of the country.

Recommendations

Recommendation for action

To Employers: Both government and private employers should actively sponsor impartial leadership training programs for Heads of Secondary Schools (HSS) to enhance their leadership capacities through learning new management skills. These training initiatives could range from short seminars and courses to more extensive, long-term higher degree programs. Newly appointed HSS must be adequately prepared to handle the multifaceted aspects of their roles, including extended working hours, time constraints, stress management, budgetary challenges, security concerns, and other demanding tasks that occupy a significant portion of their time. Furthermore, employers should focus on improving remuneration packages and offering additional fringe benefits to HSS, aligning their promotion timelines with those of managers in other sectors. As middle-level managers, HSS compare their prospects for advancement and professional growth with other managerial categories and often feel overlooked.

To Secondary School Owners: Both private and public secondary school owners should grant increased autonomy in school management to HSS. This autonomy includes the ability to design school objectives and expectations, execute their duties effectively, and evaluate their workload.

Recommendation for future research

To enhance the scholarly contribution, it is advisable to conduct an additional study comparing job satisfaction levels among secondary school heads, taking into account demographic variables such as age, gender, length of tenure, educational attainment, and marital status across a broader spectrum of councils in the Tanga region and other regions. This broader scope will provide a deeper understanding of potential variations in job satisfaction among Heads of Secondary Schools (HSS) based on demographic factors.

Limitations of the study

The study involved only Tanga region and left other region of the country. Therefore the study might not be a precise representative of all heads of secondary school in the country. The sample selection in this study was also a limitation due to sample of the study comprised N = 78 whereby public HSS were n = 58 and private HSS were n = 20. Therefore heads of private secondary schools were fewer than heads of public secondary schools something that limits their representation in this study. There is also a tricky situation due to substantial differences in terms of demographic characteristics such as age, gender, period in office tenure and education levels. If these characteristics were taken into account during data analysis and treated separately, it might help to explain the observed demographic job satisfaction differential.

Authors’ contributions

Hawa Mpate: Is the corresponding author of this research paper. She contributed to the conceptualization of the research paper, determining the content and structure of the paper along with feedback and edits on multiple drafts. Ally Sango was the sole collector of data, and contributed to the quantitative data analysis.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

Authors did not receive any fund for this research they used their own fund.

Notes on contributors

Hawa Mpate

Dr. Hawa Mpate is currently a Lecturer at the Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education of the Mkwawa University College of Education. She specializes in studies of Curriculum development, Teacher Education and Science Technology and Mathematics Education (STEM) .

Ally Sango

Ally Sango is currently a PhD student at the Department of Educational Foundations, Management and Lifelong Learning, at the School of Education of the University of Dar es Salaam. His areas of specialization are Educational leadership, Policy and adminstration.

Appendix 1

Heads of secondary schools questionnaire

Introduction

This questionnaire is about the research entitled ‘Enhancing Job Satisfaction Among Heads of Secondary Schools Exploring Perspectives’ in Tanga Region. This questionnaire intends to explore suggestions from the HSS in light of enhancing job satisfaction among heads of public and private secondary schools in Tanga region. Kindly respond to the questionnaire to the best of your knowledge and as requested for the successful achievement of the study purpose. The University and the researchers assure you that all responses will remain and be treated in a confidential manner and used for the purpose of this study only. Do not write your name or of your school anywhere in this questionnaire.

Part one: demographic information

Put a tick in the blank space

1. Your gender Male….….….….… Female ….….….….…

2. Marital status Single ….….….….… Married ….….….…. Divorced ….….….…

3. Age Below 35 years ….….….…. Batween 35-45 ….….….….

   Between 45-55 ….….….….…. Above 55….….….….….….

4. Highest educational level attained:

   Diploma ….….…. Bachelor Degree ….….….….

   Masters degree ….….…. PhD degree….….….….

5. Your school ownership Private (non government) ….….…Public (government)….…

6. Kindly provide your suggestions in light of enhancing job satisfaction levels

   1. ________________________________________________________________

   2. __________________________________________________________________

   3. __________________________________________________________________

   4. __________________________________________________________________

   5. __________________________________________________________________

   6. __________________________________________________________________

   7. __________________________________________________________