Exploring the links between emotional intelligence and writing performance among Ethiopian high school learners

Abstract

Emotional intelligence (EI) refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and manage emotions, which has been found to play a crucial role in academic achievement. However, there is limited research on the impact of EI on writing performance, particularly in the Ethiopian context. Therefore, this study aims to address this gap by examining the correlation between EI and writing performance among Ethiopian high school students. To achieve this objective, a correlational research design was used. A sample of 11th-grade students (aged between 17 and 24; 69 male and 107 female) from high schools in Ethiopia was selected using a simple random sampling method. The participants completed a standardized EI questionnaire, providing quantitative data. Additionally, a writing task was assigned to the participants, and their written compositions were analyzed to assess their writing performance. The collected data were analyzed for validity and reliability using Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) statistics. Pearson’s correlation coefficient was used to analyze the relationship between EI and writing performance, univariate analysis and ANOVA test was used to determine the difference in EI among participants. The findings of this study showed a statistically significant relationship between EI and writing performance. Furthermore, the results provided insights into the specific relationship between EI and writing performance among high school learners in Ethiopia. The implications of this study may extend to educational policy and practice, as it can inform the development of interventions and strategies to enhance students’ EI and improve their writing skills.

Keywords:

• Emotional intelligence
• writing performance
• high school learners
• Ethiopian context

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Xin Yun Hu, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

SUBJECTS:

• Educational Psychology
• Psychological Science
• Theory of Education
• Secondary Education

1. Introduction

Since emotional intelligence (EI) may affect various aspects of students’ academic performance, it has garnered significant interest in educational research (Ebrahimi et al., 2018). EI, as defined by Mayer and Salovey (1990), refers to the ability to recognize, understand, and regulate one’s own emotions as well as those of others (Sen et al., 2020; Sepideh et al., 2017). According to Kim (2023) and Saud (2019), higher EI is believed to aid individuals in managing relationships, coping with stress, and exhibiting positive behavior, all of which can contribute to greater academic achievement. Few studies have explicitly examined writing performance, despite the expanding amount of research on the subject (Waiswa et al., 2020; Zahra & Ketabi, 2014). Writing is an essential ability in education, particularly for high school students, as it directly impacts their academic performance (Kant, 2019; Sen et al., 2020). However, many Ethiopian high school students struggle with writing, which negatively affects their overall academic performance (Gebremariam & Hiluf, 2023; Patel, 2017; Van Rooy et al., 2005).

Previous studies have demonstrated that the link between EI and writing performance can have both positive and negative effects (Kanesan & Fauzan, 2019; Karimi et al., 2020; Sundararajan & Gopichandran, 2018). The study by Larose-Pierre et al. (2023) further supports the significant influence of EI on various academic performance domains, including writing. Numerous studies have shown that individuals with higher EI tend to perform better in writing tasks (e.g. Sepideh et al., 2017; Waiswa et al., 2020; Zahra & Ketabi, 2014; Zysberg, 2018). Smedt et al. (2018) argue that enhanced emotional intelligence is associated with improved communication, problem-solving, and overall academic achievement. High EI students are more likely to be resilient, self-assured, and driven, all of which can improve their writing skills (Simba et al., 2016; Sundararajan & Gopichandran, 2018). However, most of the research in this area has focused on college students studying English as a foreign language, neglecting the importance of EI in writing performance. There is also a lack of research on this subject among high school students studying Ethiopian languages. Therefore, this study aims to fill this gap in the literature by examining the relationship between EI and writing performance among Ethiopian high school students.

Gaining knowledge about the connections between EI and writing proficiency could potentially improve the writing performance of Ethiopian high school students. Educators can help students develop these abilities by creating interventions and strategies that target the specific EI competencies associated with improved writing performance (Kanesan & Fauzan, 2019; Van Rooy et al., 2005). Ethiopia, a country located on the Horn of Africa, is striving to enhance the quality of education through various educational initiatives. However, the relationship between writing performance and EI among Ethiopian high school students has not been extensively researched.

The goal of this study is to examine the link between EI and writing performance among high school students in Ethiopia. The study aims to explore the variations in writing abilities among students with high and low EI. The research questions for this study are as follows:

1. What is the relationship between EI and writing proficiency among high school students in Ethiopia?

2. Do high school students in Ethiopia with higher EI perform better in writing compared to those with lower EI?

There are multiple factors that make this study noteworthy. First and foremost, it will contribute to the existing body of research on EI and its impact on writing performance. Additionally, the study’s findings can assist in improving writing instruction and support for high school students, thus benefiting Ethiopian educational policies and practices. Furthermore, educators can develop targeted interventions to enhance students’ writing skills by understanding the influence of EI on writing performance. Ultimately, this research has the potential to generate more effective teaching strategies that promote students’ overall academic success.

2. Literature review

The possible influence of emotional intelligence (EI) on various aspects of students’ academic performance has attracted significant interest in the field of education (Abdolrezapour, 2013; Khatoon et al., 2020; Kim, 2023; Rodríguez-Leal et al., 2023; Yang et al., 2022). However, there has been limited research on Ethiopian high school students’ EI and writing performance. This literature review aims to address this gap by examining the research on EI and its impact on the correlation between EI and writing ability in high school students under different circumstances. Additionally, this study aims to gain a better understanding of how EI influences writing performance and identify practical strategies for enhancing writing performance through a review of relevant literature.

2.1. Emotional intelligence and writing performance

Writing is a sophisticated cognitive activity that requires a range of skills, including organization, coherence, and preparation. Studies have shown that EI significantly impacts writing performance (Abdolrezapour, 2013; Gebremariam & Hiluf, 2023; Megías-Robles et al., 2022). Learners with higher EI are better at managing their emotions, coping with stress, and maintaining focus, all of which positively influence their writing skills (Fiori & Vesely-Maillefer, 2019; Mayer et al., 2024). EI also plays a role in the social and emotional aspects of writing. Those with high EI are more likely to engage with peers, communicate effectively, and embrace constructive criticism (Kim, 2023; Megías-Robles et al., 2022). These abilities contribute to the development of stronger writing skills.

Most research on the connection between EI and writing ability has shown favorable correlations (Ali & Mohammed, 2020; Nwadinigwe & Azuka-Obieke, 2012; Ranjbar et al., 2017; Suleman et al., 2019). However, some studies have found no significant relationship between writing performance and EI (Quílez-Robres et al., 2023). The outcomes of these investigations have varied. For example, a study by Donisi et al. (2022) discovered that American high school students with higher EI scores had superior writing abilities compared to those with lower EI scores. Additionally, students with EI have been shown to have better psychological well-being and lower levels of anxiety, despair, and physical problems (Alavinia et al., 2012; Halimi et al., 2021; Linares et al., 2018). Researchers explain these results by suggesting that individuals with high EI are more skilled at understanding and expressing their emotions, which enhances their ability to write effectively. Similarly, Nyarko et al. (2020) study found that students with higher EI generally produce higher-quality essays compared to those with lower EI. Studies by Quílez-Robres et al. (2023) and Gebremariam and Hiluf (2023) have also demonstrated a positive correlation between EI and writing performance. High school students with higher EI scores tend to have superior writing abilities in terms of organization, coherence, and clarity (Gebremariam & Asgede, 2023). They are more likely to effectively communicate their thoughts and engage the reader. However, Xu and Zou (2020) research suggests that there is no connection between writing proficiency and EI among Ethiopian high school students. Other investigations by Ackley (2016), Kliueva and Tsagari (2018), Saro et al. (2023), and others have also indicated that writing performance may be influenced by factors other than EI alone, such as language competency and writing abilities.

Additionally, studies have demonstrated that EI can impact other aspects of writing, including organization, idea development, and editing (Ali & Mohammed, 2020; Rodríguez-Leal et al., 2023). For example, a study by Yang et al. in 2022 revealed that students with higher EI had greater abilities to generate ideas, resulting in more imaginative and captivating writing (Asmamaw & Semela, 2023; Bar-On, 2006; Buckley et al., 2020; MacCann et al., 2020). Furthermore, studies by Ghanbari and Abdolrezapour (2021) showed that students’ ability to successfully organize their ideas and construct essays was significantly influenced by their EI. Despite these contradictory results, it is evident that EI influences the writing abilities of Ethiopian high school students. To learn more about the precise ways that EI affects writing ability and the potential educational consequences, further study is required for educational practices and interventions.

These results imply that the development of writing abilities is significantly influenced by EI. Students with higher EI are more likely to be able to control their emotions (Ghanbari & Abdolrezapour, 2021; Núñez et al., 2023), which can improve their writing abilities (Ali & Mohammed, 2020; Kliueva & Tsagari, 2018). They are able to think critically, write in a variety of styles for diverse audiences, and articulate their ideas more clearly.

2.2. Ability model of emotional intelligence

Using the EI model by Bar-On (1997) and the theory by Mayer and Salovey (1990) as a starting point, empirical research shows that student populations throughout the world have varied sets of EI competences. EI is the capacity to identify, comprehend, and regulate one’s own emotions as well as those of others. According to Mayer et al. (2016) and Mayer and Salovey (1990), this notion has received a lot of attention in the field of education. Accordingly, Jan and Anwar (2019), Mayer et al. (2016) and Mayer et al. (2024) correctly categorized the four distinct emotional intelligence (EI) abilities: (1) managing own emotions, (2) understanding others emotions, (3) utilizing emotions, and (4) perceiving emotions.

2.2.1. Managing own emotions

Managing one’s own emotions is a crucial aspect of EI ability. It involves being aware of one’s own emotions and being able to effectively control and regulate them (Mayer et al., 2024). According to Sundararajan and Gopichandran (2018), the emic perspective helps individuals understand and manage their own emotions; while the etic perspective helps individuals connect with, empathize with, and respond to the emotions of others. This model encompasses skills such as recognizing and labeling emotions, managing stress and anxiety, and staying calm in challenging situations (Buckley et al., 2020). Developing self-awareness is the first step towards enhancing EI in writing (Sundararajan & Gopichandran, 2018). It is important to take the time to reflect on one’s own emotions and how they influence the writing process. Okello and Aomo (2018) argue that managing one’s own emotions requires the ability to control and regulate them. This involves calming oneself down when feeling angry or upset and expressing emotions in a healthy and constructive manner. It also entails managing stress and anxiety and being resilient in the face of adversity (Asmamaw & Semela, 2023). Finally, managing one’s own emotions involves staying calm and composed in challenging situations. This requires the ability to think clearly and make rational decisions, even when under pressure (Asmamaw & Semela, 2023).

2.2.2. Understanding others’ emotions

Understanding others’ emotions is a crucial aspect of EI ability (Jan & Anwar, 2019; Sahle et al., 2023). It involves the ability to understand and navigate the emotions of those around us, while effectively responding to and influencing their emotional state (Abdolrezapour, 2013; Önen & Ulusoy, 2015; Sharon & Grinberg, 2018). This plays a significant role in building strong relationships, fostering teamwork, and enhancing overall communication skills (Xu & Zou, 2020). To effectively manage others’ emotions, one must first develop self-awareness and empathy. Self-awareness is about recognizing and understanding our own emotions, as well as how they can impact others. Empathy, on the other hand, is the ability to understand and share the feelings of others (Chew et al., 2013; Coronado-Maldonado & Benítez-Márquez, 2023; Larose-Pierre et al., 2023). Effective communication is also vital in managing others’ emotions. It is important to be able to express ourselves clearly and effectively (Donisi et al., 2022), while also actively listening to others. Ghanbari and Abdolrezapour (2021) described that by being attentive and responsive to the emotions of those we interact with, we can better address their needs and concerns and provide the necessary support.

2.2.3. Utilizing emotion

Utilization of emotion focuses on the effective understanding and management of emotions. It involves recognizing and harnessing emotions to achieve desired outcomes (Sahle et al., 2023; Xu & Zou, 2020; Yang et al., 2022). Utilizing emotions requires being aware of one’s own feelings and those of others (Quílez-Robres et al., 2023). It also involves empathizing with others and understanding their emotional state (Yang et al., 2022). Additionally, the utilization of emotion involves managing emotions in a productive manner, which includes regulating one’s own emotions and responding appropriately to emotional cues from others. Moreover, utilizing emotions means leveraging them to motivate oneself and others (Jan & Anwar, 2019). Emotions can be powerful drivers of behavior, and individuals with high emotional intelligence can tap into this potential. By directing emotions towards positive goals, individuals can enhance their performance and achieve success in various areas of life (Ghanbari & Abdolrezapour, 2021).

2.2.4. Perceiving emotion

Perception of emotion revolves around an individual’s ability to recognize and understand emotions, both within themselves and in others (Esmaeili et al., 2018; Fiori et al., 2014; Núñez et al., 2023). It involves being attentive to subtle cues and nonverbal signals that indicate someone’s emotional state (Coronado-Maldonado & Benítez-Márquez, 2023). This skill requires accurately interpreting facial expressions, body language, and tone of voice. Developing the ability to perceive emotions is crucial for effective communication and establishing meaningful connections (Kliueva & Tsagari, 2018; Larose-Pierre et al., 2023; Reemts, 2015). When we can accurately perceive others’ emotions, we are better able to respond with empathy and understanding. This not only improves our interactions with others but also promotes a more harmonious and cooperative social environment (Akca, 2010; Saibani et al., 2012) (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Proposed EI abilities model.

Finally, engaging in reflective writing can help deepen individual’s EI (Abdolrezapour, 2013). Take the time to write about your thoughts, emotions, and experiences (Donisi et al., 2022; Yang et al., 2022). This practice allows you to gain a better understanding of yourself and your emotional responses. By regularly reflecting on your writing process, you can identify patterns and make conscious efforts to improve your emotional intelligence.

H1: Ethiopian high school learners’ EI abilities (Managing Own emotions, understanding others’ emotions, utilizing emotions, and perceiving of emotions) have a significant positive relationship with their writing performance.

H2: Ethiopian high school learners with higher EI abilities have better writing performance compared to those with lower EI abilities.

3. Methodology

3.1. Design and participants

A quantitative correlational research design was utilized to investigate the links between EI and writing performance among high school students in Ethiopia. Correlational research is a design that aims to explore the relationship between variables without making any claims about cause and effect (Saro et al., 2023). It involves collecting and analyzing data on at least two variables to determine if there is a connection between them (Okello & Aomo, 2018).

The study was conducted in Dese City, which is situated 400 kilometers away from Addis Ababa, the capital of Ethiopia. A sample of 163 high school students enrolled in 11th-grade at Akalewold High School was selected using a random sampling technique from a total of 492 students in the city. The school approved the study project due to the restrictions imposed by the COVID-19 pandemic, which prevented in-person interactions that could have affected access to the target population. The selected students were from the same grade level to control for differences in emotional intelligence and writing ability, as they were assigned to the same grade level based on their performance on the Grade-10 National Examination Proficiency Test. Through a random lottery selection procedure, 163 11th-grade students from grades nine to twelve were carefully chosen from four high schools to participate in the study. The participants were all from the social science stream at Akalewold High School (Table 1).

Table 1. Socio-demographic information of 11th-grade respondent students.

Valid		Frequency	Percent	Valid Percent	Cumulative Percent
Gender	Male	97	59.5	59.5	59.5
	Female	66	40.5	40.5	100.0
	Total	163	100.0	100.0
Age	Below 17	23	14.1	14.1	14.1
	17–19	123	75.5	75.5	89.6
	Above 19	17	10.4	10.4	100.0
	Total	163	100.0	100.0

The participants in this study were recruited by their teachers and invited to participate. Both students and their parents were asked for permission to take part in the study. The participants completed the self-reported EI questionnaire during class time, and their EI scores were matched with their writing performance, which was collected through a paragraph writing test.

3.2. Data collection tools and procedures

There are two views on EI in literature (e.g. Jan & Anwar, 2019; Mohammadi & Izadpanah, 2018; Schutte et al., 1998). One view suggests that EI is a collection of cognitive abilities used to understand and process emotion-related information. The other view suggests that EI consists of emotional, personal, and social competencies, such as leadership, happiness, optimism, and flexibility. This study specifically focuses on the emotional abilities of high school students, rather than their personality or social skills. The reason for this focus is that various factors related to library use, such as interaction with library staff, library atmosphere, and information resources, involve the influence of emotions. Therefore, this study examines the cognitive emotional abilities and writing performance of the participants.

3.2.1. EI scale questionnaire

The data collection instruments for this study included a self-reported EI scale questionnaire and a writing performance test. The self-reported questionnaire was adapted from Mohammadi and Izadpanah (2018) and Schutte et al. (1998) to measure the selected participants in this study. Before collecting the data, the instruments were evaluated by experts in applied linguistics to ensure their contextual relevance and translated into Amharic. During the reconstruction of the questionnaire, two sections were applied. The first section covered respondents’ demographics, while the second section focused on EI. Participants were instructed to consider their ability to perceive emotions, control their own emotions, control the emotions of others, and use emotions when answering the questions. However, the questionnaire was prepared with only one set of instructions and did not have different sections to determine the reliability and validity of the measurements.

Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement with the statements by circling a five-point Likert scale, ranging from Strongly Agree (5) to Strongly Disagree (1) at the bottom of the provided alternative answers. The questions for each EI were presented as multiple-choice questions. This formatting was implemented to minimize bias and discourage students from selecting the ‘undecided,’ ‘not sure,’ or ‘don’t know’ options due to a lack of comprehension of the questionnaire’s significance or boredom/inattentiveness (Gebremariam & Asgede, 2023).

During the data collection procedure, students received an explanation of the purpose and instructions on how to complete the questionnaires. To protect their privacy, their names were kept confidential. The introduction of the questionnaire emphasized the importance of the students’ participation in the study. Students were asked to write their numbers using a sequence from 1 to 163, ensuring that it would not interfere with their written responses. Teachers personally guided the students in filling out the questionnaire and writing the article, providing support to help them remain calm and focused. After completion, the teachers and the researcher checked the questionnaires during the session to ensure that any incomplete sections were filled out.

3.2.2. Writing performance test

The writing performance test was administered to the participating students. They were instructed to write a narrative-style paragraph on a given topic to facilitate the writing process. Specifically, they were asked to write about one of their experiences growing up in their hometown. The students wrote their paragraphs and were instructed to include the identification number given to them by the researcher on each of the paragraphs and questionnaires. Their teacher informed them that their work would be graded.

Three language teaching experts, all with master’s degrees, evaluated the paragraphs based on the given topic. The evaluators were provided with general instructions and rubrics for evaluating the text. These rubrics were designed by American and British researchers and referenced works by Sahle et al. (2023). The evaluation criteria included idea organization (20 points), content (20 points), language use (30 points), punctuation (5 points), and grammar use (25 points), for a total of 100 points. The evaluators were instructed to adhere to the scoring guidelines when correcting the paragraphs.

Each manuscript was triplicated before being submitted to the evaluators. The individual scores given by each evaluator for each paragraph were summed, and the average score from the three evaluators was recorded. It was acknowledged that different moods at different times could influence the evaluation results, so the evaluators were reminded to carefully evaluate the paragraphs. The inter-rater reliability was calculated and found to be 0.82, indicating that the evaluators were reliable and could be used for the study.

3.3. Data analysis method

The data collected via the questionnaires were analyzed using descriptive statistics to determine the mean and standard deviation of the participants’ responses. Our main objective was to examine the relationship between students’ writing skills in language classes and their EI. Before using these statistical tools, the collected data was checked against some basic assumptions of the instruments used. The distribution of quantitative data scores at the item and scale levels was normal, with skewness and kurtosis values between +1.5 and -1.5. Furthermore, there were no significant outliers that could have influenced the mean scores. The Levene statistic test of homogeneity variance for the sub-scales of EI also revealed no significant differences (df (2,161) = .033, p > 0.05). Additionally, the normality probability plots (Normal Q-Q Plots) showed straight lines, indicating normal distributions for the two dimensions of EI. Thus, descriptive and inferential statistics were used for the data analysis.

After all, the study considered partial correlation and adjusted for gender when calculating the overall correlation, particularly when analyzing the data from the questionnaires using mean values, standard deviation, Pearson product-moment correlation, and post hoc methods. However, this technique does not indicate which variable is more closely associated with gender. We used Pearson’s correlation coefficient to reach this conclusion. Additionally, we employed the Univariate analysis test in the data analysis procedure to explore the connection between EI and writing performance.

3.4. Ethical consideration

In this study, official letters were obtained from Addis Ababa University before implementing the data collection process. These letters were used to contact participants at the study site. All participants were informed that their participation in the study was voluntary, and that the results would be used for educational purposes. The requested participant students also confirmed their voluntary participation in the study by signing a consent letter. The data collection process, which included a questionnaire and an interview, was approved by the department council of the Ethiopian Languages and Literature department.

4. Results

This study aims to explore the relationship between emotional intelligence and writing performance among high school learners in Ethiopia. The research utilized a quantitative research design, specifically correlational research, to examine the hypothesized positive correlation between emotional intelligence and writing performance. To achieve the objectives of the study, quantitative data was utilized. Participants were given questionnaires and tests. The data from the questionnaires were then imported into SPSS Amos 23 and analyzed in two steps. The first step involved exploring the students’ EI quantitatively, while the second step focused on investigating the relationship between EI and their writing performance in high school grades.

4.1. Reliability of data collection tool

With an overall alpha value of 0.85, Schutte’s (1998) EI scale demonstrated good internal consistency. Separate Cronbach alpha values were calculated for the selected participants in this study to assess the scale’s suitability in the Ethiopian context. The overall reliability of EI ability was found to be 0.80. Before analyzing the quantitative data using ANOVA and correlational statistics, an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted. The maximum likelihood method with varimax rotation was used to analyze the factor structure and correlations between the items in the scale. The construct validity of the data was assessed using the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure, which yielded a value of 0.89, surpassing the recommended threshold of 0.80. This indicates that the sample from which the data were collected was sufficient.

Additionally, the Bartlett’s test of sphericity yielded a statistically significant result at X2/df(120) = 1179.067; p = 0.001, indicating that the data were suitable for factor analysis. To ensure the accuracy of item grouping within each construct, the researcher performed an exploratory factor analysis. This analysis helped identify independent factors and determine which items loaded onto these factors (refer to Table 2).

Table 2. Reliability and convergent validity (n = 176).

IC	Items	EC	RCM
ME1	When I am faced with obstacles, I remember the times I faced similar obstacles and overcame them	.635	.603
ME2	I seek out activities that make me happy	.849	.885
ME3	I use good moods to help myself keep trying in the face of obstacles	.688	.773
ME4	I can tell how people are feeling by listening to the tone of their voice	.587	.445
UnE	I know when to speak about my personal problems to others	.751	.824
UnE	Other people find it easy to confide in me	.581	.532
UnE	I arrange events others enjoy	.704	.776
UnE	I present myself in a way that makes a good impression on others	.660	.569
UnE	I compliment others when they have done something well	.676	.753
UnE	When another person tells me about an important event in his or her life, I almost feel as though I experienced this event myself	.779	.867
UE1	Some of the major events of my life have led me to re-evaluate what is important and not important	.776	.855
UE2	When my mood changes, I see new possibilities	.713	.723
UE3	When I am in a positive mood, I am able to come up with new ideas	.693	.821
UE4	When I feel a change in emotions, I tend to come up with new ideas	.606	.703
PE1	I am aware of the non-verbal messages I send to others	.532	.517
PE2	By looking at their facial expressions, I recognize the emotions people are experiencing	.684	.704
PE3	I know why my emotions change	.622	.639
PE4	I am aware of the non-verbal messages other people send	.648	.538
PE5	I know what other people are feeling just by looking at them	.633	.559
PE6	I help other people feel better when they are down	.600	.547

Note: IC = item code; EC = extraction communality; RCM = related component matrix; SSC = subscale code; ME = managing own emotions; UnE = understanding others’ emotions; UE = utilizing emotions; PE = perceiving emotions.

According to the results in Table 2, the extraction communality ranged from 0.532 to 0.849, while the factor loadings ranged from 0.517 to 0.885. All standardized factor loadings for the items were above 0.50, indicating good convergent validity. The factor analysis confirmed that the data collection instruments were suitable for further analysis in this study. Additionally, the research analysis utilized information gathered from the questionnaire provided to the respondents. To assess and determine the participants’ experiences with reflective practice, the Pearson correlation coefficient was employed. Figure 2 presents the questionnaire items by CFA.

Figure 2. Conffirmatory factor analysis.

Note: F47 = ME, managing own emotions; F48 = UnE, understanding others’ emotions; F49 = UE, utilizing emotions; F50 = PE, perceiving emotions; F14-F46 = items of the questionnaire (refer to data collection instruments section).

Figure 2 shows that the results of the CFA indicate that the model had good fit statistics, including X2/df = 4.008, RMSEA of 0.131, RMR of 0.076, and GFI of 0.745. The recommended values, based on the guidelines of Browne and Cudeck (1992), are provided in the brackets (RMSEA < 0.05, RMR < 0.05, GFI > 0.90). All items’ standardized factors had loadings above 0.50, indicating good convergent validity. Another evidence of convergent validity is that the maximum shared variance is less than the respective average variances extracted for all variables. The Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability for all variables are above 0.80, demonstrating good reliability.

4.2. Emotional intelligence levels of respondents

According to Schutte et al. (1998), students who score higher on the scale show higher EI, while lower scores indicate lower EI. However, there is no established norm for low, average, and high levels of EI (Jan & Anwar, 2019). In this study, the levels of EI were measured using Schutte et al.'s (1998) criteria. The cutoff points for each level were determined by using the sample mean and standard deviation of the writing performance. Therefore, the proposed levels of EI and their corresponding ranges of mean scores are presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Proposed levels of EI and frequency of distribution.

Levels of EI	Ranges of mean scores	Frequency	Percent
Very low EI	1.00–2.75	6	3.7
Low EI	2.76–3.18	31	19.2
Moderate EI	3.19–4.05	125	76.7
High EI	4.06–4.48	1	0.6
Very high EI	4.49–5.00	—	—
Total	—	163	100

Table 3 displayed that the majority of respondents (76.7%) possessed a moderate level of Emotional Intelligence (EI) as measured on the Schutte’s EI scale. Out of the 163 respondents, 6 (3.6%) were found to have a very low level of EI, 31 (19.2%) were found to have a low level of EI, and 1 (0.6%) respondent was found to have a high level of EI. It is a good sign that a large number of students (n = 126, 77.3%) were found to be emotionally intelligent at the moderate (76.7%) and high (0.6%) levels. The respondents did not attend any EI-enhancing programs, yet the majority of respondents were emotionally intelligent, ranging from very low to high levels.

4.3. The links between EI Sub-scales and writing performance

A positive and significant correlation was hypothesized between EI (managing one’s own emotions, understanding others’ emotions, utilizing emotions, and perceiving emotions) and writing performance. Pearson moment correlation was used to analyze the relationship between the sub-scales of EI and the dependent variable, writing performance, among Ethiopian high school students. The results are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Relationship between EI sub-scales and writing performance (n = 163) by Pearson correlation.

Variables	Me	SD	ME	UnE	UE	PE	WP
ME	3.46	.41	1
UnE	3.47	.44	0.362**	1
UE	3.43	.47	0.213**	0.250**	1
PE	3.21	.54	0.336**	0.452**	0.466**	1
WP	68.03	10.17	0.156*	0.095	0.177*	0.367**	1

* Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

Note: M = mean; SD = standard division; ME = managing own emotions; UnE = understanding others’ emotions; UE = utilizing emotions; PE = perceiving emotions.

Table 4 provides descriptive statistics for the sub-scales of EI, which are: managing own emotions (M = 3.46; SD = 0.41), understanding others emotions (M = 3.47; SD = 0.44), utilizing emotions (M = 3.43; SD = 0.47) and perceiving emotions (M = 3.21; SD = 0.54). The respondents’ mean scores were moderate (2.121 to 3.47) in all sub-scales. Therefore, it can be concluded that the respondents were moderate intelligent regarding all EI sub-scales. Furthermore, the descriptive statistics of the dependent variable writing performance was M = 68.03, SD = 10.17. The correlational results also indicate a significant relationship between different dimensions of EI and their writing performance. Specifically, there is a statistically significant correlation between ME and UnE (r = 0.362), ME and UE (r = 0.213,), ME and PE (r = 0.336), UnE and UE (r = 0.250), UnE and PE (r = 0.452), UE and PE (r = 0.466), and PE and WP (r = 0.367) significant at p = 0.01 significant level, while ME and WP (r = 0.156) and UE and WP (r = 0.177) are significant relationships at p = 0.05 significance level, However the relationship between UnE and WP (r = 0.095, p > 05) did not statistically significant relationships, except UnE and WP (p > 05) these dimensions of EI and the writing performance of high school students have a significant impact on each other.

Table 5 displays the results of the tests of between-subjects effects of EI using univariate analysis. The statistical results indicate that two EI subscales, ME (F(8,163) = 2.195; p = 0.032; partial eta squared = 0.130) and PE (F(13,163) = 2.356; p = 0.008; partial eta squared = 0.206), have a significant impact on the dependent variable, writing performance. However, the other two EI subscales, UnE (F(14,163) = 1.272; p = 0.235; partial eta squared = 0.131) and UE (F(9,163) = 1.887; p = 0.060; partial eta squared = 0.126), do not have a significant effect on writing performance among Ethiopian high school students. Additionally, one-way ANOVA statistics were applied to determine the differences between EI and writing performance in regards to gender differences of the participants, as presented in Table 6.

Table 5. Tests of between-subjects effects.

Dependent variable: writing performance
Source	Type III sum of squares	df	Mean Square	F	Sig	Partial eta squared
Corrected Model	8241.313^a	44	187.303	2.590	0.000	0.491
Intercept	68475.613	1	68475.613	946.966	0.000	0.889
ME	1269.941	8	158.743	2.195	0.032	0.130
UnE	1287.332	14	91.952	1.272	0.235	0.131
UE	1227.912	9	136.435	1.887	0.060	0.126
PE	2214.803	13	170.369	2.356	0.008	0.206
Error	8532.641	118	72.311
Total	771115.766	163
Corrected Total	16773.954	162

^a R Squared = 0.491 (Adjusted R Squared = 0.302).

Table 6. The ANOVA statistics (df = 1,161; n = 163; male = 97 and female = 66).

Variables	Gender	M	SD	Between-subjects	Sum of squares	Mean square	F	Sig	Effect size (r)
ME	Male Female	3.35 3.19	.413 0.46	Between Groups	1.081	1.08	5.76	0.017	0.40
				Within Groups	32.636	0.19
				Total	33.717
UnE	Male Female	3.47 3.11	.33 .42	Between Groups	5.569	5.57	41.10	0.000	0.95
				Within Groups	23.578	0.14
				Total	29.147
UE	Male Female	3.40 3.08	.35 .45	Between Groups	4.452	4.45	28.29	0.000	0.91
				Within Groups	27.383	0.16
				Total	31.835
PE	Male Female	3.31 2.88	.41 .44	Between Groups	7.628	7.63	42.95	0.000	0.95
				Within Groups	30.902	0.18
				Total	38.530
WP	Male Female	69.81 66.72	9.79 10.89	Between Groups	398.350	398.35	3.80	0.053	0.28
				Within Groups	18231.618	104.78
				Total	18629.968

Note: M = mean; SD = standard division; ME = managing own emotions; UnE = understanding others’ emotions; UE = utilizing emotions; PE = perceiving emotions.

Table 6 displays the ANOVA statistics for EI and writing performance across gender factors. The mean score for ME for males was M = 3.35, SD = 0.41, while for females it was M = 3.19, SD = 0.46. The mean score for UnE for males was M = 3.47, SD = 0.33, and for females it was M = 3.11, SD = 0.42. The mean score for UE for males was M = 3.40, SD = 0.35, and for females it was M = 3.08, SD = 0.45. The mean score for PE for males was M = 3.31, SD = 0.41, and for females it was M = 2.88, SD = 0.43. Lastly, the mean score for WP for males was M = 69.81, SD = 9.79, and for females it was M = 66.72, SD = 10.89.

However, the mean value alone cannot determine if there are statistically significant differences between the mean values of the EI dimensions and the writing performance of selected Ethiopian high school students. In order to determine this, the ANOVA test was performed to analyze the participants’ ratings of EI subcategories (Table 5) and their writing performance. The ANOVA between-groups analysis was used to identify any statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the selected Ethiopian high school students’ EI dimensions and writing performance. Based on this analysis, Table 5 shows that there were significant differences in EI dimensions at: ME = F(1, 174) = 5.76, p = 0.017; r = 0.40; UnE = F(1, 174) = 41.10, p = 0.001; r = 0.95; UE = F(1, 174) = 28.29, p = 0.001; r = 0.91; and PE = F(1, 174) = 42.95, p = 0.001; r = 0.95. However, in regard to their writing performance, there is no statistically significant difference in WP, F(1, 174) = 3.80, p = 0.053, r = 0.28.

Thus, the results suggest that students’ EI may have an impact on policy in Ethiopia’s high school education system. This shift would prioritize the psychological health and emotional conduct of students over academic challenges. The results provide insightful information that learners in different circumstances may find helpful, even if they may not be universally applicable. Additionally, the study demonstrates a connection between high school students’ writing skills and their EI. Recent research indicates a strong relationship between writing performance and EI aspects. However, it is important to note that the EI aspects of the selected high school students are more significant than the writing performance of the participating pupils. The possession of EI abilities is natural and possibly developed due to factors such as student maturity, co-education, and social interactions. Further research is suggested in this regard.

5. Discussion

The purpose of the study was to understand the emotional intelligence (EI) and writing performance among a sample of Ethiopian high school students. To achieve this, two research questions were developed, and data were collected through a self-report questionnaire and writing performance assessments from high school students. The data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics, including EFA, CFA in Amos 23, Pearson correlation, and ANOVA. Thus, the results of the EFA demonstrated that the solution was based on the four expected components of EI and writing performance, with each item loading on its respective factor. Furthermore, the study evaluated the reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity of the data using CFA validation with Amos 23.

The aim of the study was to gather information and analyze the EI of a sample of high school students using a self-report questionnaire and writing test. The study explored the correlation between EI aspects and writing performance in the Ethiopian context. According to Fiori and Vesely-Maillefer (2019), learners with higher EI are better at managing their emotions, coping with stress, and maintaining focus, all of which positively influence their writing skills. The results of this study indicated that the level of EI among the respondents was moderate (76.7%) and suggested that EI aspects may influence students’ writing performance. This finding aligns with previous studies (e.g. Chew et al., 2013; Jan & Anwar, 2019; Mohammadi & Izadpanah, 2018; Zysberg, 2018). Donisi et al. (2022) discovered that American high school students with higher EI scores had superior writing abilities compared to those with lower EI scores. Similarly, Nyarko et al. (2020) study found that students with higher EI generally produce higher-quality essays compared to those with lower EI. According to Jan and Anwar (2019), the majority (68.9%) of students in their study had a moderate level of EI.

The relationship between the EI sub-scales and writing performance revealed that all aspects of EI, except perceiving emotions, were significantly correlated with writing performance. This finding is consistent with previous studies (e.g. Abdolrezapour, 2013; Megías-Robles et al., 2022; Mayer et al., 2024). However, the results contradicted other studies (e.g. Ali & Mohammed, 2020; Kim, 2023; Quílez-Robres et al., 2023; Sepideh et al., 2017), which characterized EI as separate from students’ writing performance and suggested the need for technical support to regulate students’ emotions during writing sessions. There was no statistically significant difference in the level of EI dimensions in relation to academic achievement. These findings are consistent with the constructivist learning theory, as observed in the studies by Ebrahimi et al. (2018), which also found a lack of EI in students’ writing. Based on these previous studies, one interpretation of this study’s findings suggests that EI is a diverse topic among high school students in the Ethiopian context.

Furthermore, the study investigated the status of EI dimensions and writing performance among selected high school students in Ethiopia. The univariate analysis revealed that the ME and PE subscales of EI have a statistically significant in relationship with writing performance, while the UnE and UE subscales do not significant impact the writing performance of Ethiopian high school students. These findings are consistent with some previous studies (e.g. Donisi et al., 2022; Rodríguez-Leal et al., 2023) but contrast with others (e.g. Karimi et al., 2020; Larose-Pierre et al., 2023; Xu & Zou, 2020; 2023) which confirmed students’ EI may differ depending on the context and study instrument. The ANOVA statistics also revealed a statistically significant difference in EI dimensions based on gender. However, there was no statistically significant difference in writing performance between the gender groups. These findings align with previous research that examined the relationship between students’ EI and writing achievement, specifically in terms of gender differences (Saro et al., 2023; Suleman et al., 2019; Xu & Zou, 2020). For instance, Ackley (2016) and Kliueva and Tsagari (2018) concluded that the development of EI could provide educators with significant opportunities to improve both EI and academic performance among high school students. Similarly, Fiori and Vesely-Maillefer (2019) found a strong association between classroom EI and school performance, highlighting the relevance of EI in the classroom setting and its impact on academic performance, including writing. Ebrahimi et al. (2018) discovered that the majority of Iranian students had low EI and writing performance, suggesting that low EI is closely linked to poor academic performance in the classroom.

Therefore, the current study has revealed a connection between EI and the writing performance of a selected group of Ethiopian high school students. The findings of the study indicate that the dimensions of EI were significantly correlated with each other, as well as with writing performance at a significance level of p = 0.05. This suggests that the different dimensions of EI have an impact on one another. Previous studies (Alavinia et al., 2012; Halimi et al., 2021; Linares et al., 2018) have noted that students generally have positive emotions toward their academics, despite some limitations in their writing performance (Ali & Mohammed, 2020; Khatoon et al., 2020; Nwadinigwe & Azuka-Obieke, 2012; Ranjbar et al., 2017; Suleman et al., 2019). Additionally, MacCann et al. (2020) found that high school students experience positive emotions associated with their academic performance. The new finding of this study is that writing performance is not influenced by birth sex in terms of EI factors.

6. Conclusion

The results of the present study indicate a correlation between high school students’ emotional intelligence (EI) and their writing performance. However, there was no significant difference in writing based on gender. Nevertheless, statistically significant differences were found in all dimensions of EI. This highlights the importance of incorporating effective EI self-efficacy training in Ethiopian high schools. It is recommended that EI concerns be included in the curriculum to enhance students’ writing performance and overall experience. This study has implications for the field of education, emphasizing the significance of EI in schools and particularly in writing instruction, both inside and outside the classroom. However, this study has some limitations that should be addressed in future research. Firstly, the study focused solely on high school students in the Ethiopian context, which may not capture the full range of opportunities for academic performance through EI. Additionally, the sample used in this study may not be representative, and the results may not be generalizable. The use of a questionnaire and tests for data collection may have introduced self-selection sampling bias. The ecological site of the study may have also influenced the findings.

Future studies should aim to include a more diverse range of participants, from elementary to high school students, to provide a clearer understanding of the potential role of EI in academic performance. Further investigations into high school students, beyond just those in Wollo City, Ethiopia, would be beneficial for future researchers. The findings of this study may also be applicable to other developing countries experiencing writing difficulties related to EI levels. The study suggests that high school students should be made aware of the importance of EI for the positive development of their self-efficacy, optimism, and academic resilience.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

We, the authors, declare that all participants were informed that they could voluntarily participate in the study and that the results would be used for educational research purposes.

Acknowledgment

We thank to the respondent teacher trainees during the data gathering process.

Data availability statement

All data are available upon request from the editors and/or reviewers, and the corresponding author can provide them.

Disclosure statement

The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Belete Hiluf

Belete Hiluf is now at the college of Ethiopian Languages and Literature (Amharic), Social Science and Humanities, Wollo University, Desie, Ethiopia.

Marew Alemu

Marew Alemu is now at the Ethiopian Languages and Literature (Amharic), Faculty of Humanities, Bahir Dar University, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia.

Hailay Tesfay Gebremariam

Hailay Tesfay Gebremariam is now at the Ethiopian Languages and Literature (Amharic), Social Science and Humanities, Arba Minch University, Arba Minch, Ethiopia.