Self-referent upward counterfactuals and depression: Examining regret as a mediator

Abstract

Previous research has found that self-referent upward counterfactuals are associated with depression. However, empirical evidence regarding the way self-referent upward counterfactuals exert their influence on depression remains scarce. This study examined whether regret intensity mediates the relationship between self-referent upward counterfactuals and depression. This possibility is in line with a sequential negative cognitions-to-affect theoretical framework, given that self-referent upward counterfactuals that blame the self for not bringing about desired outcomes may elicit feelings of regret. Adding to the limited number of studies involving Asian samples about counterfactual-related depression, the study was conducted on 147 university-educated residents of the Philippines (M_age = 28.28, SD = 9.23; Range = 18–62) who completed an online survey. Mediation analysis using multiple regression found that regret intensity fully mediated the relationship between self-referent upward counterfactuals and depression, after controlling for the effects of three variables related to regret regulation (self-deceptive enhancement, other-referent upward and nonreferent downward counterfactual thinking). Specifically, greater tendencies to generate self-referent upward counterfactuals were associated with greater regret intensity which, in turn, was associated with higher levels of depression symptoms. This finding suggests that depressed individuals who report more frequent self-referent upward counterfactuals may benefit from treatment strategies that lower regret intensity.

Keywords:

• counterfactual thinking
• self-referent upward counterfactuals
• regret
• depression
• self-enhancement

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ERRATUM

Public Interest Statement

People may imagine ways in which an unfortunate event should not have happened. This mental exercise is called counterfactual thinking, as people think of scenarios contrary to reality. They may generate self-referent upward counterfactuals, which involve blaming oneself for not doing something that could have made the situation better. This counterfactual type has been linked to depression, but little is known about how this association occurs. The current study investigated whether this relationship depends on the emotional experience of regret that may be felt in response to self-referent upward counterfactual thinking. University-educated Filipino residents completed an online survey assessing various counterfactual thinking tendencies, depression and self-deceptive enhancement. The results indicated that more frequent generation of self-referent upward counterfactuals was associated with more intense regret, which in turn was associated with more depression symptoms.

Competing interests

The authors declare no competing interest.

Notes

1. As the survey was anonymous, we were not able to identify participants who reported being severely depressed. However, in addition to the counselling service number provided, participants were also given the contact information of the authors should they need to discuss any concerns.

2. Given the significant negative associations of age with self-referent upward counterfactuals and regret, and negative associations of educational attainment with self-referent upward counterfactuals, regret and depression, we repeated the analysis with age and educational attainment as covariates. Mediation was also established when age and education were added to the model, B = 0.02 (β = .09), SE = 0.01, 95% CI = 0.00 to 0.04, p < .001. The individual contribution of education to the model was significant, B = −0.14 (β = −.25), SE = 0.05, p < .05, but age was not, B = 0.01 (β = .08), SE = 0.01, p = .37. Religiosity was not investigated as a covariate because it did not correlate significantly with self-referent counterfactuals, regret or depression.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Anne Gene Broomhall

Anne Gene Broomhall is currently a PhD student from University of New England, Australia. She holds a post-graduate diploma in Psychology, and has worked as a tutor in Psychology subjects such as Psychological Medicine and Human Development (Developmental Psychology) and Statistics at James Cook University, Australia. She is also an Associate Member of the Australian Psychological Society (APS). Her research interests include counterfactuals, depression and Philippine culture. The findings reported in this paper may inform psychotherapy techniques for counterfactual-related depression in the Philippines.

Wendy J. Phillips

Wendy J. Phillips is currently a senior lecturer in Psychology at the University of New England, Australia. Her research interests include mental health and psychological well-being, and cognitive models of behaviour, risk perception and decision-making in applied contexts. She is particularly interested in the relative influence of implicit (automatic, affective, fast, experiential) vs. explicit (deliberate, rule-based, slow, rational) processes involved in regulating emotions, managing problems or making decisions.