Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) production in Ethiopia: Trends, prospects and challenges: A review

Abstract

Ethiopia is the home of horticulture and several vegetables are growing in many parts of the country. However, cucumber is not produced in larger scale by smallholder farmers. This review aims to assess the trends, prospects, and challenges of cucumber production in Ethiopia. Countries in the world are cultivating cucumber for different purposes, and it is notable for its nutrition and health prominence over other Cucurbitaceae groups. A 100 gm cucumber serving could provide an average of 15 Kcal (energy), 3.6 gm (carbohydrate), 2–21% (vitamins), and 2–4% (minerals). Although Ethiopia has promising potential for cultivation, the production trend is indicating insignificant. The area covered by cucumber was 40 ha (2002) and 76 ha (2021). The production as well as growth rate of the crop for about 20 consecutive years is very low. On the contrary, the health risks and malnutrition problems in Ethiopia are remarkably skyrocketing. Stunting, wasting, and underweight problems are still enduring as key complications for Ethiopia. The production system and the improvement process of cucumber are not supported by technology. Cucumber breeding, pest, and disease control activities are also challenged by multiple factors. Awareness gaps and poor government commitment are also some of the hindrances. Ministries and research institutes are not engaging in research activities. Papers are not published on cucumber to show the trend, prospects, and gaps. However, from the experiences of developed nations, government commitment and instituted participation are the key actors for cucumber improvement and yield maximization that Ethiopia should take in to account.

Keywords:

• Cucumber nutrition
• Cucurbitaceae
• cucumber requirement
• Kiwan
• raw cucumber

1. Introduction

Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is belonging to the family of Cucurbitaceae and it is native to Asia, where it has been consumed for over 3,000 years (Pandey & Kujur, 2022). Cucumber is probably native to India (Yang & Sagar, 2022). Although it possibly arises from India, other scholars also reported Egyptians knew the crop in the old times and later on cultured by the Greeks and Romans (Goel et al., 2022). However, African horned cucumber is also a traditional food plant indigenous to Southern and Central Africa, and it is cultivated in Namibia, Botswana, South Africa and Swaziland (Omokhua-Uyi & Van Staden, 2020). Kiwan is also a popular cucumber variety that contains a significant number of vitamins (vitamins C and B6), and minerals (magnesium, calcium, potassium and iron) (Murray & Horswill, 2022). It also contains antioxidants, which can help the body to fight the free radicals (dos Santos et al., 2022). Thus, eating Kiwan is essential to attain the essential nutrients used for healthy life. Cucumbers also have external health benefits which may help to relieve sunburn pain, and swelling (Uzal et al., 2022).

Although cucumber is growing worldwide, Asia, Euro-Asia, and the middle east regions are the main producers (Heigermoser et al., 2022). However, the production and productivity of cucumbers in Africa in general and Ethiopia in particular is very low. The reason for low production and yield are lack of attention by the government, societal awareness problems, scarcity of improved varieties, pest and disease complications, and soil fertility diminution (Prasad & Kothari, 2022). Most Ethiopian farmers are not only aware about the cultivation, consumption, economic value, health, and nutritional value but also of cucumber crop at all. The research centers which are conducting experiments and demonstrations on cucumber are very few. Only the Melkassa and Sirinka Research Centers in Ethiopia are working on cucumber crops. Similarly, all higher education institutions (Ethiopian universities) are not partaken in the research activities of cucumber. Cucumber improvement (breeding) and processing technologies are still abandoned areas, and there are no adequate research articles, working papers, books, training manuals, leaflets, and newspapers published on cucumber production in Ethiopia. Seminars, conferences, and workshops are not also carried out. The scenario logical assumptions on cucumber crops are abstained from the Ethiopia’s agriculture system. Remarkably, Ethiopia is a food and nutrition insecure country with more than 120 million population in Africa (Giller et al., 2021). The country is known for its complex and complicated challenges of malnutrition (stunting, wasting, and underweight) and concurrence of vitamin and mineral deficiencies (Egbon et al., 2022). Thus, the purpose of this review is to assess the trends, prospects, and challenges of cucumber production in Ethiopia.

2. Methodology

During the process of conducting a literature search for this review, the author has used different strategies, and reputable journals from Scopus, Web of Science, and PubMed databases have been also used for the write-up of this review.

3. Overview of cucumber production

According to the 2018 world production report, China (67,601,863 tons), Turkey (1,890,904 tons), Russia (1,604,346 tons) and Iran (650,882 tons) are the largest cucumber producer countries (Figure 1). The world yield average of cucumber is reported to be between 15–22 ton (X. Liu et al., 2020).

Figure 1. Global cucumber production report in 2018.

Note: Source: Own data collection and simplification.

The Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT) also reported 91.25 million tons (2,261,318 ha) in 2020 with an average yield of 40.4 tons (Onanuga et al., 2022). The productivity trend between 2018 and 2020 shows an increment of approximately of 20 tons. However, even though Africa has untapped potential for cucumber cultivation, its current production and average yield is very low and the number of smallholder farmers producing cucumber is inadequate. Africa is still incomparable with the top producer countries. Some of the varieties known in Africa continent are Salad bush, hybrid Bush, champion, Pickle, bush space master, and Midget bush pickle.

In the African continent, South Africa is cultivating cucumber for commercial purposes both in open and greenhouse conditions (Maluleke, 2022). For processing purposes, South Africa farmers are producing cucumber in the open fields while in greenhouses for fresh consumption (Karanisa et al., 2022). In addition, Kenya has a lot of experience in cucumber production and it has achieved 22.5 tons of yields from Carmen F1a variety. The productivity was near to the 2018 world average but a big difference with the 2020 report. In Ethiopia, since cucumber is not well known by most of the smallholder farmers, 5,769 tons (243.00 ha) was reported in 2019 and there was no export in 2019 and 2020 production year (Gebresamuel et al., 2021).

Similarly, the export trend was dropped in to 0 percent in between 2017 and 2019. However, it was exported 210 (54 million USD) and 212 tons (74 million USD) in 2015 and 2016, respectively, which is insignificant compared to the country’s production potential (Figure 2 2).

Figure 2. Export of cucumber in Ethiopia.

Note: Source: Own data collection and simplification.

In 2015 and 2016, Ethiopia has exported its small quantity of cucumber in to Djibouti, United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Somalia and Nigeria. However, more than 95% was exported to Djibouti.

4. Growth of cucumber crop

Researchers described that cucumber is a tender annual with a trailing and succulent branched stem (John & Antony, 2010). Cucumbers are vine crops that take up much space, and the vines can grow to 6 to 8 feet longer and can trail across the ground in large gardens (Molaei & Ghatrehsamani, 2022). Cucumber is a creeping vine that grows up trellises or other supporting frames, wrapping around them with thin, spiraling tendrils.

Cucumbers have a single taproot (the plant’s main root) that can reach up to 120 cm underground, and the rest of the root system extends along the surface and is only approximately 60 cm deep (Sarkar et al., 2022). Cucumber breeders reported that it has separate male and female flower organs on the same plant (Pandey & Kujur, 2022). Nevertheless, male flowers are eminent due to the lack of a small fruit behind them, and they produce the pollen required to form the fruit but not the fruit itself (Vignati et al., 2022). However, female flowers do, and male flowers appear to be on a thinner stem, and if there are no male or female flowers on the plant, the cucumber plant will flower but produce no fruits (Behera et al., 2022). Researchers recommended planting cucumber seedlings in the greenhouse when they have two or three leaves (Basirat & Mousavi, 2022). They can also be suggested to plant 60 cm apart in greenhouse borders enriched with plenty of garden compost or in growing bags with two plants per bag and grow them in large containers filled with peat-free multipurpose compost (Chaudhary, 2022).

The African horned cucumber is described as having an oval shape, approximately 6 cm in diameter and 10 cm in length with sharp prominent spines, and the immature fruit is reported to be dark green with gray specks, ripening to bright orange (Staeck, 2022). Most vine crops benefit from additional hives to promote pollination, and researchers reported that all vine crops depend on insects to transfer pollen from male to female flowers and that each female flower must be visited 15–20 times for proper pollination to take place (Rahimi et al., 2022). Cucumber is a creeping vine that roots in the ground and grows on support frames; the plant has large leaves that custom shade over the fruit, and the fruit also has a lengthened approximately cylindrical shape (R. Kumar et al., 2022). Depending on the species, cucumbers are set to yield 50 to 70 days once planted, and depending on their use, cucumbers are picked by size and taste good when collected immature, and they should not reach the yellowish phase as they become bitter as they grow larger (Ortas, 2022). Harvests array from 1 to 3 pounds of fruit per plant per week throughout the highest yield period, and a distinctive 12-week yield period in a well-managed crop can produce an aggregate of 20–25 pounds of fruit per plant (Wang et al., 2022). Marketable shares of cucumbers are prepared by size and quality and packed in wooden or cartoon containers (Babla et al., 2022).

5. Nutritional and health importance

Cucumber has a wide range of advantages for human beings (Lobine et al., 2022). Researchers indicated that cucumbers contain calories, vitamins and minerals (Figure 3) (Zargar Shooshtari et al., 2020). In addition, the crop has a high water content, which can be estimated to be approximately 96% (Elavarasan et al., 2022). The high water content can help to lose weight in several ways, and this is an admirable solution for obese and overweight people, particularly in the developed world (Kim & Cho, 2022). Additionally, water acts as a broom and sweeps the waste products from the body, and cucumber is thus a great detox (A. Kumar et al., 2020). Cucumbers not only add freshness and flavor to salads, sandwiches, and side dishes but also replace high-calorie substitutes (Gupta et al., 2022). Researchers reported 16 calories in every 104 g slice and 45 calories in a 300 g entire cucumber (Tan et al., 2020). This means that anyone can eat many cucumbers without comprising additional calories that prime weight increments. Cucumber can also keep the brain healthy and is used as an anti-inflammatory perseverance (Z. Liu et al., 2022). It also reduces inflammation by inhibiting the production of inflammatory compounds called prostaglandin (Gong et al., 2022). Thus, consumption of cucumber has been reported to protect nerve cells from the decline due to aging (Kahraman & Toklu, 2022). The fiber content of cucumber can also complement the bulk of the stool and release constipation (Wali et al., 2022). Nutrition experts stated that cucumber has a higher content of phytonutrients, carotenoids, and other essential minerals than all members of the Cucurbitaceae family, such as squash, pumpkin, wild and domestic melon (Huerta-Reyes et al., 2022). Although cucumber can be used for different purposes, the following are some of the examples to be mentioned.

Figure 3. Nutrient composition of unpeeled and raw cucumber vegetables.

Note: Source: Own data collection and simplification.

Oxidative pressure instigated by free radicals has been connected to cancer, heart, lung, and autoimmune diseases, and thus, cucumbers are rich in beneficial antioxidants that may reduce the risk of free radicals (Can et al., 2022). In Africa in general and Ethiopia in particular, the diseases are extensively increasing (Chandra et al., 2022). A study conducted on 30 elderly people who were exposed to cucumber powder showed less susceptible for those disease (Lobine et al., 2022). Another study on cucumbers reported that it is rich in flavonoids and tannins (Bag et al., 2022). Cucumber also contains lignans and polyphenols which can help in reducing the risk of ovarian, uterine, breast and prostate cancer (Woźniak et al., 2021). Thus, cucumber is predominantly recognized for its anticancer property and its use to keep the kidneys healthy. Hence, drinking cucumber juice at least twice every day keeps the kidneys healthy (Wali et al., 2022). Cucumber also refreshes the breath and helps to remove the odor-causing bacteria from the mouth and thus, placing a slice of cucumber on the roof of the mouth can be a natural remedy for intestinal worms (Fang et al., 2022). Cucumber is also reported as a tapeworm killer because it contains an enzyme called erepsin (M. Zhang et al., 2022). Researchers described that cucumber is one of the best home remedies for diabetes, and the hormones present in this crop are required by the pancreas to produce insulin (Bhatt et al., 2022). However, researchers have not reached to one decision; instead, they agree that more research is needed to determine how cucumbers affect blood sugar levels in humans (Ozguven & Altas, 2022).

In Ethiopia, food insecurity and malnutrition are still a major concern across the country, and an estimated 20.4 million people currently require food support (Yitayew & Seyoum, 2022). Acute and chronic malnutrition, vitamin A deficiency, iodine deficiency disorders, and iron deficiency are the major problems in Ethiopia (Abera et al., 2023). So eating a healthy, balanced diet is the best way to combat malnutrition. In addition to having a lot of healthy nutrients, cucumber also contains antioxidants and a few plant components that may be able to cure or even prevent various diseases (Rolnik & Olas, 2020). Cucumber consumption daily has also been shown to lower blood sugar and bad cholesterol (Mallick, 2022). Consuming cucumbers may also have a number of positive health effects, such as weight loss, balanced hydration, and regular digestion (James, 2023). Hence, the consumption of cucumber is important to overcome the problem of malnutrition.

6. Ecological importance

Cucumber production is relatively sustainable, and there is no known impact on air, water, soil, and plants (Pańka et al., 2022). The nature of cucumber is ideal for the regulation of the microclimate, and the root also helps to reduce soil erosion due to wind and runoff. The residue is also important for soil fertility improvement (Basirat & Mousavi, 2022). Researchers stated that the cucumber residues can be used for the preparation of natural fertilizers such as compost (Olowoake et al., 2022). It also plays an important role in nutrient cycling and reduce organic loads (Pan & Pratolongo, 2022). Soluble nitrates and phosphates released from cucumber decomposition can be absorbed by the nearby microorganism (Zhao et al., 2022). Developed nations have been producing different outputs from cucumber residues. As composts have high water content, cucumbers compost down incredibly quickly, they will not add a large amount of bulk to the compost heap, but that moisture will help other things compost down quicker so it is all good. Researchers have stated that carbon sink reduction by fruit removal triggers respiration but not nitrous oxide emissions from the root zone of cucumber (Nett et al., 2019).

Similarly, chopped or shredded cucumber leaves work well as summer mulch for many plants, allowing moisture to seep into the soil while protecting the soil from evaporative processes, and the leaves imperatively add nitrogen to the soil structure (Larkin, 2020).

7. Challenges of cucumber production in Ethiopia

Research studies have pointed out some of the problems and challenges of cucumber cultivation, such as lack of awareness, capital outlay, high input cost, lack of storage facilities, disease and pest problems, and poor market linkage (Kandegama et al., 2022). Almost all communities in Ethiopia lack knowledge about cucumber cultivation, production, processing, and marketing activities. The government is not committed to invest on cucumber vegetable crops.

The research centres and higher education institutions are not engaged in research work, technology innovations, and market conditions. The lack of improved varieties is still the biggest challenge in the African continent in general and in Ethiopia in particular (Gumisiriza et al., 2022). Moreover, the variety currently growing in Ethiopia, are not productive and are highly susceptible to pest and disease (Basirat & Mousavi, 2022). For instance, the three insect pests which are known to affect cucumber production are beetles (striped and spotted), green peach and melon aphids (Coco et al., 2022). Cucumber beetles cause direct damage to the cucumber crop and can also spread other devastating disease called bacterial wilt (Sarkar et al., 2022). Similarly, powdery mildew has been mentioned in different studies as a fungus that pollutes all cucurbits, including muskmelons, squash, cucumbers, gourds, watermelons, and pumpkins (Dar et al., 2022). Powdery mildew prefers humid conditions with temperatures ranging from 68 to 81°F, and new spores will be formed in warm and dry conditions (Rana et al., 2022). However, the level of spore formation and its distribution are most prominently affected by additional weather and ecological factors, which have not yet been identified in Ethiopia (D. Kumar & Kukreja, 2022). It has been reported that powdery mildew causes 30 to 100% yield loss in cucurbitaceous (Salami et al., 2022). Maggots also damage cucumber fruits because the female fly lays eggs in the tissues of the fruits (G. Zhang et al., 2022). During the postharvest period, cucumbers can undergo some changes that would reduce the value of the products on the market, and the most common changes are yellowing and disease (Righini et al., 2022). These changes caused by several factors that alter the lifespan of cucumbers after harvest. The shelf life of the cucumber after harvest is approximately 14 days (Poonia et al., 2022). The shelf life is very short, or it is perishable and cannot be stored for a long time, which again makes food and nutrition safety a major challenge (Calderón-Santoyo et al., 2022). Harvesting, transportation, marketing, processing, and storage technologies are also the major complications of cucumber production in Ethiopia (Bhattacharya, 2022). The cucumber crop package is not well designed considering the international experience and scientific procedures, which makes the production system quiet.

8. Review gaps

It is vital to research how cucumbers contribute to Ethiopia’s food and nutrition security. It is also pivotal to investigate the role that cucumbers play in mitigating climate change. Variety development, soil fertility improvement, and agronomic management activities should be studied. Cucumber modeling and respective crop package should be explored. Predictive and systematic agronomy technologies should be investigated and implemented since the production, processing, marketing, and consumption of cucumbers should be assisted by artificial intelligence.

9. Conclusion

Cucumber is a potential crop for food and nutrition security in worldwide. Whereas, in Ethiopia, it is an almost a neglected crop by the government and community. However, health risks and malnutrition (stunting, wasting, and underweight) problems are skyrocketing. There is no any system to support production of cucumber by technology. Researches done on cucumbers are still inadequate, and a lot of work remains to be done and need to be studied. Ministries and research institutes are not engaging in research activities. Papers are not published on cucumber to show the trend, prospects, and gaps. Thus, the government and other stakeholders should take steps to provide training, conferences, and workshops to cultivate cucumber on a large scale and pay attention to food and nutrition security.

Authors’ contributions

Concept, synthesis, write-up

Acknowledgments

The author acknowledges the anonymous editors and potential reviewers for their valuable input to the script.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Additional information

Funding

No funding was received for this manuscript.

Notes on contributors

Yohannes Gelaye

Yohannes Gelaye is a lecturer and researcher in the Department of Horticulture, Debre Markos University. He did Master’s degree in Horticulture at Bahir Dar University, Ethiopia. He has taught various Horticulture courses at Debre Markos University, Ethiopia since December 2014 (Such as vegetable and fruit crops production, Ornamental plants production, Plant physiology, Coffee production and quality control, Design and agricultural experimentation, Weeds and its management, Nutrition sensitive agriculture). His area of research interest is horticulture crops improvement, Postharvest handling and management, Food safety, Soil fertility management, Nutrition and food security. The cultivation of cucumbers in Ethiopia has faced a series of challenges that have hindered its production and productivity. The challenges include lack of awareness, capital outlay, high input costs, and poor market linkage. Almost all communities in Ethiopia lack knowledge about cucumber cultivation, production, processing, and marketing activities. The government is not committed to invest in cucumber vegetable crops. Additionally, the country lacks adequate storage facilities such as warehouses and cold rooms that can store cucumbers for an extended period. The irrigation systems in Ethiopia are also irregular due to insufficient rainfall, exposing crops such as cucumber to water stress which leads to reduced yields. It is essential that stakeholders invest in developing marketing channels and transport systems that provide better access and support for cucumber farmers while also addressing issues related to irrigation management and pest control to further promote the growth of the sector.