De-othering Thai Ramayana: the sexual construction and objectification of Mandodari in the eighteenth century Ramakien

Abstract

This study conducted a textual analysis of the Ramakien, or Thai Ramayana, composed in the late eighteenth century. Focusing on the depiction of Mandodari, Ravana’s consort, this investigation employed close reading and cultural context from the early Bangkok period to unpack the nuanced construction of ‘otherness’ in her portrayal. The research found that, given Ravana’s royal status in Thai literary tradition, Mandodari’s portrayal of sexuality and narratives in the Ramakien were intricately constructed to reinforce the inferiority of her husband, Ravana, who is Rama’s main antagonist, and to draw comparisons with Sita, Rama’s consort. The article further delved into the representation of Mandodari as a reflection of Thai monarchical ideology and sexual discourse in Siamese elites of the late 18th century, which arguably influenced till the coming of Western idea of sexuality in the second half of the 19th century, as well as Mandodari’s portrayal in contemporary Thai society. The epic’s genesis in the Siamese royal court underlines the intimate nexus between the Ramakien and the Thai monarchy.

Keywords:

• Thai ramayana
• Ramakien
• Mandodari
• chakri monarchs
• sexual otherness

REVIEWING EDITOR:

• Oliver Nyambi, University of the Free State, South Africa

SUBJECTS:

• South East Asian Studies
• Literature & Culture
• Asian Literature
• 18th Century Literature

Introduction

Since the fourteenth century, most of Siamese or Thai monarchs called officially King Rama, especially during the Bangkok period. The main reason is that Rama, the protagonist of the Ramakien or the Thai Ramayana, reflects the ideals of the Thai monarchy. Through the influence of Hinduism and Brahmin in royal court, Lord Rama symbolizes the Thai monarchy’s divine connection to the godly status of the incarnation of Lord Vishnu (Poopongpan, 2007, p. 157). Throughout the Ayutthaya period (1350-1767 AD), marking to the adoption of the concept of a Divine King (Devaraja) (Baker & Phongpaichit, 2009, p. 19), Thai culture upheld the belief that the king was regarded as an avatar of Vishnu, held supreme authority. As a result, the Ayutthaya court underwent greater organization, incorporating royal language, terminology, and ceremonial practices associated with the administrative system. The divine kingship was evident through the names of the kings, such as Narai, Ramathibodi, and Ramesuan in the Ayutthaya period and The Name King Rama I - King Rama X during the Bangkok period (Sritrakool & Hilderbrand, 2021). The deliberate choice of these names by the Thai King underscores his concerted effort to align Thai monarchs with the mythical persona of Rama. This strategic move bestowed upon the Thai monarchy, including the Chakri dynasty the same divine and monarchical legitimacy attributed to Rama himself (Gosling, 2005, pp. 6-7).

Not only through mere nomenclature, but the linkage of the Thai king’s stature with divinity, particularly Vishnu, is also apparent through the use of specific symbols and traditions. An illustrative instance is the emblem of the Thai king. The Garuda, as the mount of Lord Vishnu, came to symbolize the divine power and authority vested in the king. Consequently, the Garuda was adopted as the national symbol and is depicted on seals utilized by both the King and the Government of Thailand to authenticate official documents (Syafrony, 2015, p. 2). Indeed, the name ‘Chakri’ dynasty directly signifies a connection to the Chakra, one of Lord Vishnu’s divine weapons (Goss, 2017, p. 7). The Chakra is symbolized as a spinning disk with a razor-sharp edge, often depicted in Hindu iconography as a powerful instrument of protection and justice wielded by Lord Vishnu. In this context, the choice of the term ‘Chakri’ for the Thai dynasty not only emphasizes a symbolic connection to divine kingship but also presents the burden of the guardian and authority of Lord Vishnu through the representation of Thai monarch.

Furthermore, numerous aspects of Thai customs further enhance the portrayal of Thai kings as possessing godlike status, particularly through literature. The most significant literary portrayal reflecting the Thai king as Rama or the Vishnu avatar is the Ramakien or the tale of Rama in Thai version, which stands as one of the most pivotal pieces of royal literature in Thailand. The composition of the complete version of Ramakien occurred as late as during the reign of King Rama I. While early versions of this epic were penned around the eighteenth century, several were lost during the destruction of Ayutthaya in 1767. Nevertheless, this masterpiece exerted a profound influence on Thai literature, art, drama and performing arts (Kiriwat, 2001, pp. 39-40; Poolthupya, 2009).

The tale of Rama has had a profound influence on Thai society since the Sukhothai period in 13th century, the Thai king has been referred to as ‘Rama’, specifically Ramkhamhaeng. Additionally, Rama’s tales featured prominently in Thai literature throughout the Ayutthaya period (1350-1767 A.D.) (Bora & Nath, 2014, p. 41), an era characterized by the concept of Devaraja. But during the early Bangkok period, several scholars emphasize the significance of Theravada, Buddhism and the early Bangkok kings. According to Wyatt (1985), Eoseewong (1980, 2005), and Baker and Pasuk (2009), the Bangkok monarchy was revered as the guardian of Buddhism, with the king assuming the responsibility of upholding Buddhist principles and fostering unwavering faith among the people. This duty showcased the king’s dedication to preserving the moral integrity of society and guiding individuals or the state towards Nirvana (Eoseewong, 1980, pp. 23-65). King Rama I exemplified this commitment by undertaking various endeavors to promote and protect Buddhism. Notably, he oversaw the restoration of the Tripitaka, the canonical scriptures of Buddhism, and Traiphum, the text elucidating Buddhist cosmology (Goss, 2017, p. 3). Generally, to establish the authority and power of the new ruler in the early Bangkok period, King Rama I ordered the collection of both religious writings and works translated from foreign literature to be used as tools to support the new ruling ideology (Sartproong, 1998; Dejpawuttikul, 2022; Iamsa-Ard et al., 2024).

How the Ramakien exerted a significant influence on the Thai monarchy during the early Bangkok period. A fascinating aspect of this era was the seamless integration of Buddharaja (king as a Buddhist ruler) and Devaraja (king as a divine ruler). The most comprehensive version of the Ramakien, composed during the reign of King Rama I in the late 18th century, continued to shape perceptions of the Thai monarchy as well. Beyond being a mere literary record of Thai society and customs, the Ramakien aimed to highlight the divine nature of kings and their avatar status more explicitly. It achieved this by drawing parallels between the virtuous qualities of Rama and those of Thai monarchs. This narrative served to reinforce the divine legitimacy and authority of the Thai monarchy, portraying the kings as embodiments of righteousness and moral leadership, much like Rama himself. Thus, the Ramakien played a crucial role in shaping the ideology and perception of the Thai monarchy during the early Bangkok period.

To elucidate the authority of Ramakien as a reflection of the ideology of Chakri monarchs newly established, this article aims to demonstrate that while some scholars argue for a strong relationship between Buddhism and kingship in the early Bangkok period, the concept of the divine king and the Thai monarch has persisted depicted through the Ramakien. Therefore, the article seeks to explore the role of the Ramakien and its cultural context that shapes the meaning of the text to Thai elites. To comprehend this cardinal text, it is essential to analyze how the Ramakien, representing the concept of devaraja or divine kingship, influenced the dynamics within the royal family and contributed to the consolidation of the Thai royal family’s authority. While portraying the king as Rama or his avatar status is one literary strategy that emphasizes the stature of the Thai monarchy, the article also aims to delve into how the Ramakien portrays Rama’s antagonists, Ravana and his kinship, as immoral quality in the eyes of Siamese kingship.

Within the narrative, Rama epitomizes the archetype of the ideal king, showcasing virtues such as benevolence, purity, merit, martial prowess, possession of capable armed forces, and effective governance of the realm (Pallathadka et al., 2022). Consequently, the composition of the Ramayana played a pivotal role in establishing Rama’s superiority over Ravana in every aspect. In Thai society, Ravana is well-known as a demon king morally inferior to Rama, particularly due to his desires for the wives of others, which contradicts the traditions of kingship. However, this article seeks to present that in addition to portraying Ravana’s inferiority by himself, literary techniques portraying Ravana as inferior also extended to the depiction of his retinue, particularly his consort, Mandodari. It’s crucial to acknowledge that Mandodari’s portrayal was influenced by concepts of ‘otherness’, particularly in terms of ‘sexual otherness’. In the Ramakien, Mandodari’s depiction is shaped by discourse, power, exoticization, and sexual objectification of femininity, leading to the erosion of her human dignity. Therefore, this article aims to examine the literary techniques employed to depict the ‘otherness’ of Mandodari, the wife of Ravana, and how her inferior status is portrayed within the narrative.

The study of Ramakien’s Mandodari is crucial as it highlights the use of sexuality to marginalize Ravana. Examining the sexual objectification surrounding Mandodari also offers insights into the norm of marriage practices among the Siamese elite culture, notably the concept of virgin marriage. Interestingly, Mandodari’s initial husband in the narrative is not Ravana. Therefore, when Ravana accepts Mandodari as his chief consort despite her previous marriage, it underscores culture of sexuality in the early Bangkok period in shaping perceptions of otherness or inferiority within Siamese elites.

In this analysis, the central focus will be on exploring the portrayal of Mandodari’s sexuality, which constitutes a key aspect to be examined in this article. While it is true that other female characters in the Ramayana or Ramakien, such as Shurpanakha, who happens to be Ravana’s sister, whose immoral behavior stemmed from her desire and lust (Manomaiphibul, 2015, p. 9) may also display characteristics that underscore Ravana’s inferiority, her role is not as prominent, and her portrayal does not exhibit the same level of ‘otherness’ as that of Mandodari. The exclusive focus on Mandodari provides valuable insights into the construction of the central character and the consequences of such an ideological choice, particularly in the context of portraying the female protagonist on Rama’s side, especially Sita, who is characterized by virtuous qualities. This represents one manner in which the narrative reinforces the favorable image of Rama as a virtuous protagonist and majestic king (Goldman, 1980; Muniapan, 2007). This study, therefore, seeks to examine the concept of ‘sexual otherness’ as it pertains to Mandodari. Through this approach, it aims to unveil how this notion served as one of the strategies employed to portray Rama’s antagonist as an immoral monarch. The analysis anticipates revealing that Mandodari is depicted as a woman with stigma, flaws and inferior attributes, consequently depicting Ravana as uncivilized. Such a portrayal underscores an ideological perspective that accentuates the righteousness of Rama as emblematic of a virtuous protagonist.

Literature review

Among the works on Thai Ramayana, the studies on the influence of Ramakien on Thai folklore and performing arts are the major group. Poolthupya (2006, 2009) sheds light on the enduring significance of the Ramakien in Thai culture. In her paper titled ‘How the Ramakien Heritage Survives in Thailand’, she emphasizes the Ramakien’s status as a cornerstone of Thai heritage. Poolthupya highlights that the Ramakien was transformed into various art forms, including performing arts and visual arts. Consequently, Ramakien has been explored across various academic disciplines, including literature, folklore, the humanities (Noinimit, 2012). Thus, Ramakien has been the subject of numerous studies, with a particular focus on its relationship with art, as evidenced by works such as ‘The Relationship Between Literary Texts and Visual Arts’ by Raroeng (1996) and ‘Conventions and Creativity of Seree Wangnaitham’s Ramakien Khon Scripts’ by Kumhaeng (2020). Furthermore, scholars have delved into the characteristics and behaviors of characters within the Ramakien, as seen in studies like ‘An Analysis of Hanuman in Various Versions of the Ramakien’ by Jeennoon (2004) and ‘A Comparative Study of Dasakantha in Various Versions of the Ramakien’ by Mongkol (2017). However, despite the breadth of research on the Ramakien, there remains a gap in studies focusing on character sexuality. Additionally, there is a lack of exploration into how sexuality influences the portrayal of superiority or inferiority among characters within the narrative.

Contrastingly, the research conducted by foreign scholars on the Ramakien encompasses various intriguing aspects and a widening perspective. For instance, works such as ‘The Ramayana in contemporary Thailand’ by Gosling (2005), ‘Literature in Gold: The Significance of the Use of the Rama Story on Thai Lacquerware Cabinets’ by Goss (2017), ‘Parallel narrative methods: Ramayana in the arts of Southeast Asia’ by Miettinen (2017), and ‘In the footsteps of a demon king: an ethnography of Ramakien’s Totsakan within Bangkok, Thailand’ by GermAnn (2023). Some of these papers touch upon the relationship between the Ramakien and the Thai monarchy, for example, Goss (2017) specifically delves into the symbolic meaning of Rama and the Thai King. However, there is a noticeable absence of exploration into issues of sexual otherness and power constructs related to the Thai monarchy within the Ramakien narrative. Given the importance of understanding gender issues in character creation, it becomes imperative to delve deeper into the ‘sexual otherness’ of female protagonist aspects to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the Ramakien, Thai society, and the ideologies of the Siamese elite.

Moreover, recent academic research on the issue has expanded its focus to include female characters, as exemplified by the work ‘The Other Ramayana Women: Regional Rejection and Response’ by Brockington et al. (2016). This book delves into the diverse retellings of Rama’s tales and their respective traditions, placing particular emphasis on the roles of female characters in these narratives and how they contribute unique values to the storytelling tradition.

In this academic context, the author will consider Mandodari to illuminate her peculiar origin and character as depicted in Ramakien’s narrative. It should be noted that various versions of the Ramayana depict Mandodari in distinct ways, including one narrative where she was originally a frog and cursed to become one (Bhattacharya, 2020). In contrast, some versions describe her initially as a fairy who was transformed into a frog due to a curse. The use of the ‘frog princess’ motif in Mandodari’s story is not unique to the Ramakien but also appears in narratives like Odisha’s Ramayana and the Kuchipudi performance of Andhra Pradesh, India. In these renditions, Mandodari’s transformation into a frog carries symbolic significance, often tied to blessings from deities and her eventual marriage to Ravana . However, the author underscores that the Ramakien takes a distinctive approach to Mandodari’s character compared to other versions. In the Ramakien, Mandodari’s portrayal includes peculiarities and flaws, such as her origin as a frog and her involvement in a polygamous relationship. The uniqueness of Mandodari’s character in the Thai version is intriguing, and the author suggests that the Thai Ramakien employs these idiosyncrasies and imperfections to accentuate the contrast between her character and the nearly flawless Sita due to the cultural environment of Siamese elites. This serves as a literary strategy to depict Rama as a noble and honorable hero, while Ravana is portrayed as uncivilized.

Fundamentally, sexual otherness, particularly regarding women, is a form of power construct. Meyer (1991, pp. 659–660) highlights Byron’s tales focus on the Oriental harem and the veiled Eastern girl in his tales, symbolizing the colonial other. This portrayal asserts authorial hegemony over the feminized East, subjecting it to masculine regulation. An examination of sexual otherness must consider gendered representations, exoticism, power dynamics, and the pursuit of liberation (Oueijan, 2006, pp. 2–4). Gendered representations play a significant role, framing certain genders or sexualities as exotic or desirable to the dominant culture. This dynamic often portrays femininity as sensual and seductive, contributing to the sexualization of other cultures. Additionally, exoticism and otherness create a blend of fascination and repulsion, fueling fantasies and desires.

The concept of sexual otherness holds significant sway in research and academic discussions, particularly in the domain of literary analysis. Studies examining otherness within Thai literature predominantly concentrate on modern literary works dating from the mid-19th century onwards. For instance, Prasannam’s (2011) paper titled ‘Writing of “otherness” in Luang Vichit Vadakarn’s Fak Fa Salween’ exemplifies this focus, the paper explores the portrayal of ‘otherness’ through Burma’s exotic setting, alongside a focus on the female protagonist’s body. Additionally, research delves into Thai literature, especially concerning female characters, through the framework of sexual otherness. An example of this is the character study ‘Mae Nak phra khanong’. Many academic works, such as Fuhrmann’s (2009) entitled ‘Nang Nak—ghost wife: desire, embodiment, and Buddhist Melancholia in a contemporary Thai ghost film’, the paper ‘On Ghostly Desires: Queer Sexuality and Vernacular Buddhism in Contemporary Thai Cinema’ by Harrison et al. (2018), and Campoli’s (2015) entitled ‘A Ghostly Feminine Melancholy: Representing Decay And Experiencing Loss In Thai Horror Films’, shed light on the creation of otherness of female characters, the acceptance of fate, and the influence of Buddhism in reconciling conflicts arising from issues of otherness in Thai society. However, these aforementioned works primarily investigate power dynamics and the role of women within patriarchal structures. This differs from this paper, which directly examines sexual otherness as it reflects literary strategies employed within the royal court, aiming to establish the superiority of the Rama character as a representative image of the monarchy. Additionally, this research seeks to understand the sexual worldview prevalent among the elite class in Thai society.

Beyond the issue of otherness, studying the Ramakien requires an exploration of works related to sexuality in the Siamese court as well. A recent historical study, ‘Woman between Two Kingdoms: Dara Rasami and the Making of Modern Thailand’ by Leslie Castro-Woodhouse (2020), delves into the often-overlooked political role of palace women, focusing particularly on the life of a northern Thai princess named Chao Dara Rasami, one of King Rama V’s wives. This work shows that how Dara plays an important role in consolidating the link between Bangkok and the Northern region, and how her life elucidated the geopolitical and sociocultural changes in Thailand. Although this work offers the intersection of sexuality, identity, power, and cultural diplomacy in the Siamese court, especially in modern Siam, However, there is a lack of study regarding sexuality issues during the 18th century in Siam, which is essential for understanding how sexual dynamics contributed to the power construct of the Siamese elite in the early Bangkok context.

Some previous studies of ‘otherness’ in Thai society before the middle of 19th century, were primarily focusing on ethnic issues, particularly those concerning non-Thai races, rather than sexuality. For instance, Reeder’s (2017) article entitled ‘Royal Brother, Ethnic Other: Politicizing Ethnonyms in the Chronicle Compositions of Early Bangkok’ and Reeder’s (2021) entitled ‘The Roots of Comparative Alterity in Siam: Depicting, Describing, and Defining the Peoples of the World, 1830s-1850s’. Both works demonstrate a significant shift in the understanding and perception of otherness, particularly concerning ethnic diversity and identity in Thai society during the late 18th to early 19th century. Moreover, studies of sexuality within Southeast Asia during the colonial period, such as Loos (2008) explore otherness in relation to sexuality, especially in marital practices, particularly across racial, legal, and ethnic boundaries. Clearly, these works have not yet addressed the issue of otherness through sexuality in Thai society, especially during the context of the early Bangkok period.

In short, sexual otherness is employed to explore power and identity formation through the sexual inferiority of the ‘other’, often leading to dehumanizing. Sexual Otherness is used to establish hierarchies and justify unequal treatment of those considered inferior. Otherness is also discussed in the context of postcolonial criticism, where it refers to the marginalized and colonized peoples who are identified by their difference from the center. The concept of otherness is explored in relation to power dynamics, exclusion, and nationalism. Otherness leads to power imbalances within a society, ultimately legitimizing power dynamics and fostering the discourse of rule by a purportedly superior figure imbued with moral and humanitarian qualities, akin to an ideal leader. Moreover, the presentation of such an ideal leader through the Ramakien during the early Bangkok period aimed to cultivate trust, loyalty, and faith in leaders during times of war and empire-building. This strategic approach played a pivotal role in solidifying the elite in Siam by emphasizing Rama’s virtue as a representation of the king.

Methodology

This research employed a textual analysis of the most comprehensive version of Ramakien, which was authored during the reign of King Rama I in the late eighteenth century, a period marked as the early Bangkok era. Focusing on the episode depicting Mandodari: Vali taking Mandodari as his wife, Ravana marrying Mandodari, Hanuman, and Mandodari engaging in intimate relations. Mandodari preparing the elixir of life, and her son, Thosaphin, battles with Rama’s soldiers. By focusing on these episodes, the primary objective of this analysis is to critically assess the construction of the female protagonist within this literary masterpiece. Focus on Mandodari, the Ravana’s consort, this study enriches the examination of power dynamics, stereotypes, and the portrayal of marginalized entities within the framework of a literary work, thereby augmenting the depth of comprehension regarding the text’s underlying themes and messages. Within the scope of this article, the framework of sexual otherness on female protagonists is harnessed to scrutinize the intricate power dynamics that are woven into the narrative fabric, with a specific emphasis on how the Mandodari is distinctly depicted in contrast to other characters, particularly those representing dominant or privileged segments of society.

The analytical endeavor seeks to uncover instances of power imbalances and gauge their impact on the agency and identity of the female protagonist. However, this study examines Mandodari as a reflection of sexual otherness in the perception of Siamese elites during the early Bangkok period. Moreover, this study delves into the societal and cultural milieu within which the female protagonist operates, investigating how prevalent norms and expectations pertaining to women shape her decisions, actions, and overall character development. Additionally, the article undertakes an exploration to ascertain whether a dynamic of otherness and construct of power is at play, wherein the female protagonist is subjected to ‘othering’ or marginalization within her societal context via sexuality. In addition, this article will attempt to show how Mandodari’s otherness contributes to reinforcing Ravana’s inferior image in Thai society. This exploration will unveil a complex literary strategy aimed at highlighting Rama’s superiority in every aspect. Such an analysis is consistent with the ideology of the Thai court, which seeks to portray Rama, which is the representation of the divine status of kings of Siam in the early Bangkok context.

Result and discussion

The ideological representation of Thai monarchy in Ramakien

The Ramakien, through its compelling narrative, effectively served as a demonstration of the Thai King’s competence. Therefore, Ramakien’s implication of this about the role of the king in Thai society (Goss, 2017, p. 6). It achieved this by skillfully wielding language to evoke emotions and employing vivid imagery that resonated deeply with its audience. Beyond merely solidifying a connection with the monarchy, the battle sequences woven into the Ramakien also functioned as didactic tools. They imparted strategic warfare tactics and fostered unwavering loyalty to the monarchy among the soldiers and army, who remained fiercely devoted to the virtuous King Rama. The ideological foundation of the Ramakien can be distilled into two core principles: firstly, venerating the King as a divine successor, symbolically embodied as Rama, who was destined to bring peace and prosperity to the Thai people; and secondly, instilling, and nurturing loyalty to the royal family among nobles, civil servants, and military personnel (Wongthes, 2022).

Various versions of the Ramayana depict Rama as a hero of unparalleled stature. Rama is meticulously crafted as the paragon of heroism, embodying unwavering moral virtues, including courage, determination, and extraordinary fortitude. Furthermore, Rama is portrayed as possessing exceptional physical and moral attributes, akin to the brilliance of stars in the night sky (Thuy, 2019, p. 7). A strategic literary device employed within the Thai Ramayana, concerning the cultivation of an ideology of power, is the construction of Rama’s image as an ideal king, replete with virtue and benevolence. In contrast, characters like Hanuman, Rama’s military commander, exude bravery and unwavering loyalty, while the character of Ravana embodies ferocity, bullying, and moral depravity (Aveling, 2012). Consequently, the Ramayana underscores the dichotomy between good and evil, with Rama epitomizing the quintessential good son, husband, leader, and king, while Ravana represents the embodiment of evil and demonic forces (Rachmawati, 2020, p. 80). Ideologically, the narrative highlights the triumph of righteousness when the forces of good and evil clash (Eoseewong, 2022). This concept not only showcases Rama’s martial prowess, aligning him with the archetype of an ideal Thai king, but it also positions Rama as a paragon of virtuous nobility who vanquishes demons, which symbolize malevolence. This portrayal process can be explored within the framework of representation, revealing power dynamics through the binary opposition of ‘Rama and Ravana’.

The creation of the Ramakien is notable for its origin in the royal court and its association with King Rama I’s reign, underscoring the relationship between this epic and the Thai monarchy (Richman, 1991, p. 55). This connection extends far beyond the simple dichotomy of good and evil. It permeates various aspects of Thai society during the early Bangkok period, including war battles, class hierarchy, and the legitimacy of King Rama I as a great ruler (Hidajat & Hasyimy, 2021, pp. 181-183). King Rama I, who transitioned from a warrior to a monarch, played a significant role in the composition of the Ramakien. The epic showcases Rama’s versatility in battle, his leadership qualities, and his victories, all of which contribute to his portrayal as a heroic leader (Wongchalard, 2023). This depiction reinforces the close connection between the Ramakien and the Thai monarchy. The relationship between the Ramakien and the Thai monarchy is further underscored by the representation of the king as Rama, an incarnation of Vishnu and a hero renowned for his goodness. The Ramakien is intricately linked with the Thai royal family, emphasizing its enduring importance in Thai culture, regardless of changes in dynasties or capital cities. Moreover, the literary production during King Rama I’s reign was closely intertwined with the social context of the time. Literary works sourced from overseas, such as Rajadhiraja, Samkok (Romance of the Three Kingdoms), and Sai Han (A Tale of the Western Han), were translated and adapted in a way that highlighted the wisdom of new leaders, aligning with the ideological underpinnings of the Chakri dynasty’s establishment (Sartprung, 1998, pp. 280-283). These stories presented great warriors and leaders full of wisdom, mirroring the qualities associated with King Rama I’s rule.

The Ramakien, alongside other narratives, plays a pivotal role in constructing the image of an idealized leader, portraying Rama’s virtues, and his journey to becoming a great king, thereby instilling loyalty, faith, and trust in the leadership that will guide the nation towards civilization. This storytelling strategy, shared with the Ramayana, hinges on the stark contrast between Rama as the epitome of an ideal king and Ravana as the embodiment of evil. Despite Ravana’s unequivocal portrayal as the villain, it’s crucial to acknowledge the complexity of his character, especially in relation to characters like Mandodari. As explored in subsequent sections, Mandodari’s perceived imperfections and distinctive qualities serve as rhetorical devices to emphasize Ravana’s audacity and subordination, thereby enhancing the sharp juxtaposition with the virtuous and illustrious kingship embodied by Rama. This narrative approach not only underscores Rama’s regal stature but also aligns with the prevailing political ideology of the early Bangkok period, illustrating the intricate interplay between literature, leadership, and loyalty to the monarch.

Mandodari: the concept of woman and otherness in Ramakien

The writing of the ‘otherness’ on Mandodari

Mandodari, or Mondho, holds a central role in the Ramakien as Ravana’s consort, but her character’s origin story in this version distinguishes her from other renditions. Initially a frog, Mandodari’s transformation into a beautiful woman following her death and resurrection leads to her becoming Ravana’s wife. The narrative takes a unique turn when she is temporarily taken by Vali, a Monkey King from Kishkindha, adding complexity to her character. Mandodari is portrayed as both beautiful and knowledgeable, possessing magical abilities, including the power to prepare the spell ‘Namthip’, an elixir of immortality, capable of reviving the dead. Her knowledge and talents play a pivotal role in the story, as she deploys Namthip to aid Ravana in his battle against Rama. However, Mandodari’s character also possesses the intriguing aspect of having multiple husbands, a facet that complicates her character further. Her beauty and magical prowess make it challenging for anyone to decline her as a spouse, raising questions about how her portrayal navigates the tension between her role as a charming queen and her numerous husbands.

While the Ramakien offers a multifaceted depiction of Mandodari, there is still ample room for exploration concerning her character’s representation, particularly in the context of power dynamics, conflict, and the construction of otherness within the narrative. Examining Mandodari’s character through the lens of otherness could provide insights into the underlying power dynamics and how she contributes to the idealized leader, Rama, within Ramakien’s framework. Considering the historical background of Mandodari’s portrayal, her depiction in the Ramakien can be seen as embodying otherness through the exoticization of her non-human lineage, her striking physical attributes, and her mastery of the mystical substance ‘Namthip’. Therefore, Mandodari is further characterized as an embodiment of otherness in the following manner:

The exoticism of Mandodari’s representation

This study delves into the utilization of various elements, including Mandodari’s non-human origin, the concept of beauty, and the portrayal of a barbarian image within the context of a fantastical ceremony to shape Mandodari’s character with a unique and distinctive identity. Beginning with her non-human race, Mandodari’s origin as a frog place her in the category of the ‘other’, a group marginalized and excluded by human society. In particular, the representation of ‘othered’ females, along with the hierarchies of race and color within the global sex trade industry, has become a subject of feminist inquiry (Kempadoo, 2000). Mandodari’s portrayal as a non-human character in the Ramakien sets her apart from other female protagonists in the narrative, reinforcing the concept of a non-human race devoid of documented human history or experience. Consequently, Mandodari’s history is portrayed as a product of fantastical storytelling, characterized by revival and transformation, suggesting that her narrative is a recent creation.

Aligning with the notion of ‘people without history’, earlier hypotheses suggested that societies characterized by social and cultural distinctiveness and mutual isolation would most commonly be found among those classified as ‘primitives’ or ‘people without history’, ostensibly isolated from both the external world and each other (Wolf, 1982, p. 4). Thus, representing Mandodari as an individual without her own historical or personal narrative intentionally reinforces her status as the ‘other’. Even after Mandodari’s transformation into a beautiful woman, her name continues to evoke the concept of otherness. Her appellation ‘Mondho’ is derived from the Sanskrit word ‘Manduka’, signifying ‘frog’. This choice of name, which distinctly departs from her original Ramayana name, Mandodari, denoting a gentle and soft-bellied woman, underscores the perpetuation of otherness in her character.

Moving on to the aspect of aesthetic allure, the narrative portrays Mandodari as possessing beauty that surpasses that of celestial beings inhabiting the six heavens. This description implies that her facial features are deemed the most exquisite within the first heaven, her appearance rivaling that of beings residing in the second heaven. Her eyes are characterized as the epitome of beauty in the third heaven, while her nose is acclaimed as the most splendid in the fourth heaven. The narrative goes on to extol her mouth, ears, and cheeks as the quintessence of beauty within the fifth heaven. Finally, her hair is celebrated as unparalleled in its beauty within sixth heaven. In the context of the Ramakien, Mandodari’s beauty is depicted in the following manner.

In the celestial hierarchy, Mandodari reigns supreme in beauty. Her countenance outshines the angels of the first level, the Maharaj level, while her appearance surpasses all at the second level, the Daowaduengsa level. Among the angels of the third level, the Yama level, her eyes sparkle with unmatched allure, and her nose possesses a grace beyond compare among those of the fourth level, the Dusit level.

As for the angels of the fifth level, the Nimanoradee level, her lips, ears, and cheeks radiate unparalleled beauty. Even among the celestial beings of the sixth level, the Niramit level, Mandodari’s hair is unparalleled splendor. Indeed, within the expanse of the sixth heavenly realm, no beauty rivals Mandodari’s. Across the three worlds, her beauty remains unmatched, a celestial marvel beyond compare.¹

(King Rama, 2014a, p. 98)

The description of Mandodari’s exceptional beauty in the narrative is depicted as a composite creation, emerging from the poet’s imaginative portrayal across various heavenly realms. This portrayal emphasizes an unconventional and fantastical beauty hidden beneath a veneer of peculiarity and extraordinary allure, potentially exaggerated in its depiction. This fantasy-driven portrayal combines romanticized descriptions and imaginative elements, firmly placing Mandodari as an otherness within a literary and visual tradition marked by romanticism and fantasy (Oueijan, 2006, pp. 1-2). In essence, fantasy and romantic descriptions of the woman’s body influence her presentation of otherness by constructing female figures as grotesque and exotic (Mondry, 2009). Her distinctive and extraordinary aesthetic attributes further contribute to the ongoing issue of polygamy among the Ramakien’s male characters. These characters yearn to possess Mandodari due to her ‘out of the ordinary’ beauty, akin to cherishing the remote for its remoteness (Tzvetan, 1993). Simultaneously, the act of scrutinizing individual features can be likened to the gaze directed at black women, perceived as ‘strange’ entities hitherto unseen, underscoring by the idea that perceptions of black women as objects of sexual and erotic desire were reinforced through various means (Kempadoo, 2000). Consequently, Mandodari’s extraordinary and unusual beauty invites readers to envision the visage of a woman, elevating her to the status of a sexual object desired by numerous male characters in the narrative.

Furthermore, Mandodari’s remarkable ability to conjure ‘Namthip’, a mystical power capable of resurrecting the deceased, becomes a central focus. She employs this magic to assist Ravana in his confrontation with Rama and is capable of reviving vast numbers of fallen soldiers. In this episode, Mandodari’s portrayal takes on an otherworldly quality, emphasizing her capacity to revive a multitude of corpses—an imagery infused with savage and fantastical elements. Such imaginative representations, akin to Oriental tales, captivate Western readers with an internalized Orientalism that presents the East as both vividly enchanting and profoundly cruel and sensual (Oueijan, 2006). This episode also portrays Mandodari as the figure wielding control over the connection between humans and the deceased, facilitating a ritualistic resurrection of the deceased. This representation aligns her with notions of the ‘primitive’, a people who structure their existence around nature, rituals, and superstitions. For some, the ‘savage’ represents an embodiment of evil and inferiority, while for others, the ‘savage’ possesses a ‘primitive’ beauty or nobility born from an intimate connection with nature. In either perspective, the ‘savage’ remains another, not fully assimilated into the human realm (Tyson, 2006).

In conclusion, the preceding discourse illuminates the process through which Mandodari’s otherness is constructed within the narrative of Ramakien. This construction is achieved through the portrayal of her non-human lineage, her extraordinary physical attributes, and her association with the primitive and barbaric aspects of women. These elements collectively transform Mandodari into an othered female protagonist, marked as ‘different’ from her literary counterparts. This portrayal aligns with the notion that the Otherness, especially for the Orient woman, embodies a blend of dominance, mystique, and illusion (Oueijan, 2006).

Mandodari: from polygamy to otherness

Mandodari’s portrayal in the Ramakien not only subjected her to the allure of the exotic but also entangled her in a complex web of polygamous relationships. According to the narrative, Mandodari was wedded to four husbands: Vali, Ravana, Hanuman, and Vibhishana. However, upon closer examination, it becomes apparent that each of these unions placed her in various precarious political situations within the context of the Ramakien. In the case of her marriage to Ravana, she was bestowed upon him as a reward, a pawn in the politics of power dynamics. Similarly, her marriage to Vali was framed as that of a victorious warrior’s spoils. Additionally, Mandodari’s encounter with Hanuman was marked by deceit, as she was tricked into a sexual encounter with him, further highlighting her subjugation within these power relations. Notably, the episode where Hanuman assumes the form of Ravana and deceives Mandodari into such an act is regarded as a significant source of shame for her.

Moreover, the Ramakien also alludes to two men who were considered husbands of Mandodari: ‘Thao Chakrawat’ and ‘Hanuman’ (in his monkey form, not as Ravana). Hanuman’s molestation of Mandodari occurs when he seeks to disrupt Ravana’s ‘Aumong’ ceremony. Regarding ‘Thao Chakrawat’, although he did not engage in an affair with Mandodari after Ravana’s demise, there exists an event in which Mandodari is claimed as Thao Chakrawat’s wife. This assertion arose when Chomphuphan, one of Rama’s soldiers, accused Mandodari’s son, Thosaphin, of having multiple fathers and extended an invitation to Thao Chakrawat to be recognized as Mandodari’s husband in Lanka. Chomphuphan’s statements aimed to persuade readers into believing that Mandodari was indeed Thao Chakrawat’s wife. In this particular chapter, Chomphuphan’s words echo as follows:

In a subsequent confrontation, Chomphuphan, renowned for his courage and unyielding resolve, confronted Thosaphin with a cutting insult: ‘The nefarious scion of manifold lineages’. He brazenly listed Mandodari’s husband—Vali, Ravana, Vibhishana, and even Hanuman. Chomphuphan queried whether these males were still deemed insufficient for Mandodari, Thosaphin’s mother.

With biting sarcasm, Chomphuphan suggested that Thosaphin ought to go to the Maliwan city. There, he implied, Thosaphin should extend a formal invitation to Thao Chakrawat, beckoning him to become yet another spouse of Mandodari, adding to her marital entourage.²

(King Rama, 2014c, p. 43)

The aforementioned scenarios illustrate how Mandodari was strategically employed as a pawn to denigrate and underscore the inferiority of her adversaries during wartime. The portrayal of Mandodari as having multiple husbands and using her as a pawn in exploiting the vulnerabilities of women is a prominent facet of the process of constructing otherness through the discourse of power. Nonetheless, it is crucial to note that the attempted justification by Mandodari’s multiple husbands was that her accumulation of adverse circumstances was not a result of heartlessness or licentiousness on her part. Instead, the underlying ideology behind this narrative suggests that Mandodari was, in fact, a victim and a political pawn manipulated by both sides, namely Ravana and Rama’s factions. This narrative highlights how her dignity, femininity, and prestige were tarnished through domination and subjected to sexual harassment, a circumstance that profoundly disgraced her. In every aspect of these narratives, the representation of a ‘woman with multiple husbands’ was employed as a means to demean Mandodari and inevitably cast her into the realm of otherness.

The comparison to archetypal woman in the realm of Ramakien

When considering the portrayal of the ‘other’ character, Mandodari, two distinct paradigms of hegemony emerge with regard to the exaltation of power and legitimacy attributed to Rama as an archetypal hero. This analysis also juxtaposes Sita, Rama’s consort, as an archetype of ideal womanhood, in conjunction with the struggles of the female protagonists within the narrative of Ramakien. Firstly, contemplate Sita in her role as the quintessential female protagonist. In the epic Ramakien, a pivotal moment unfolds when Sita encounters Hanuman for the first time. Upon realizing Hanuman’s affiliation as a soldier in Rama’s service, a significant offer is extended: Hanuman volunteers to convey Sita back to reunite with Rama by cradling her within his palm. Sita’s reaction is one of distress, rooted in her belief that her presence in this situation is the result of Ravana’s abduction, and allowing Hanuman to transport her back would constitute a grievous affront to her dignity. Consequently, Sita beseeches Hanuman to relay a message to Rama, imploring him to vanquish Ravana and, in an honorable manner, reclaim her.

From the aforementioned narrative, a notable idiom has arisen in Thai society, referring to a woman who has been ‘kidnapped by a demon, taken back by a monkey’. This phrase serves as a reproachful characterization, suggesting that a woman has been taken by one man and subsequently reclaimed by another, thereby insinuating a lack of fidelity and self-respect. The Office of the Royal Society (ORST) explicates that this idiom draws its origins from the Ramakien narrative, wherein the character in question is Sita, the consort of Rama. Hanuman, driven by his loyalty to Rama, endeavors to locate and rescue Sita, who contemplates self-harm. Sita, guided by her apprehensions, declines Hanuman’s offer, fearing that her return in such a manner would result in ignominy. Instead, she instructs Hanuman to communicate to Rama that her return can only occur with dignity upon Ravana’s defeat (Office of the Royal Society, 2011).

This idiom underscores societal perceptions in Thai culture concerning Mandodari, whose spouse is Ravana—an individual figuratively alluded to as a ‘demon’ and a ‘monkey’ in the idiom, particularly when Vali, another male monkey character, takes her away, and Ravana subsequently retrieves her to Lanka. This narrative event serves to juxtapose Mandodari’s portrayal with that of Sita, thus diminishing Mandodari’s value within the narrative. This perspective characterizes Mandodari as an impure woman who has engaged in unions with both monkeys and giants, effectively exerting control over them. Consequently, she is branded as impure, shamed, and dishonored in comparison to Sita. Furthermore, the descriptions of the intimate encounters between Mandodari and Vali, as well as Mandodari and Ravana, suggest that during these encounters, Mandodari wholly neglects her prior husband, the city where she once resided, and the offspring she once bore (King Rama, 2014a, p. 138). These depictions insinuate that Mandodari is a licentious woman who revels in her sexual pursuits, a stark contrast to Sita, who exemplifies purity and discretion. The portrayal of Mandodari thus accentuates Sita’s embodiment of ideal femininity.

Secondly, the thematic exploration of the battles involving female protagonists in Ramakien accentuates the ongoing struggle between these characters. The comparison between Sita and Mandodari underscores the distinct challenges they face and their respective existences within the narrative. While the male protagonists, Rama and Ravana, engage in battles characterized by physical strength, armies, weaponry, prestige, and intellect, the female protagonists on both sides are embroiled in a different kind of conflict, centered on their image, honor, purity, and dignity. From the aforementioned analysis, it becomes apparent that Mandodari suffers a disadvantage in terms of the loss of prestige, innocence, and honor. Her portrayal portrays her as a political pawn, and presented in a polygamous context. These representations of ‘otherness’ position Mandodari at a disadvantage when compared to Sita. In this context, Sita is elevated due to her ability to maintain her purity and dignity, which, in turn, grants her a higher position and status. Hanuman, within the narrative, extols Sita as a woman of great stature and quick intellect, deeming her worthy of being the mother of the universe (King Rama, 2014b, pp. 137-138).

The struggle of the female protagonist as a consort to her husband serves as a strategic means to reinforce the ideals and project a favorable image of Rama, the story’s hero. Sita’s unwavering dignity and purity enhance Rama’s image as a harbinger of prosperity and civilization. Conversely, the ‘otherness’ attributed to Mandodari serves to stigmatize Ravana as uncivilized. In conclusion, the analysis presented herein elucidates the author’s ingenious narrative strategy in fostering the portrayal of ideal heroism in Rama. Mandodari is cast as an outcast, depicted as barbaric, uncivilized, tarnished, exotic, and consumed by lust, thereby constructing an image that places her beneath Ravana, ultimately legitimizing Rama’s quest.

Representation of Mandodari in contemporary Thai society

Mandodari’s portrayal as an otherness character is not exclusive to King Rama I’s Ramakien. Contemporarily, Thai society continues to perpetuate and perceive the concept of ‘Mandodari’ as an embodiment of otherness as well. Examining the literary works of Kromluang Phuwanet Narintharit from the early Bangkok period, we encounter the depiction of Mandodari, who possesses striking beauty but is noted for having six husbands, comprising two monkeys and four giants who ardently desire her. The writer employs this imagery of Mandodari to satirize or mock women who have garnered affection from multiple individuals, thereby underscoring that the symbolism of Mandodari endures in Thai society and is still associated with the notion of polygamy. Then, the modernization of Thailand initiated by King Rama V in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries brought about significant reforms encompassing politics, governance, education, and the assimilation of Western influences, particularly concerning gender concepts. Western ideals, such as the notion of marriage preceding cohabitation—rooted in Christian matrimonial customs (Kumhaeng, 2022)—as well as Western notions of femininity and masculinity, began to permeate Thai society. The changes in perspectives on sexuality and gender, especially with regard to women, have been notable since King Rama V’s reign.

Within the context of literary history, the narrative of Mandodari resurfaces during the era of King Rama V, as exemplified by ‘The poem depicting the Ramakien story on the balcony of the Temple of the Emerald Buddha’. In this narrative, Mandodari falls victim to sexual abuse by Hanuman as part of a plot to disrupt Ravana’s ceremony, a theme described in stanza 90. Additionally, the poem references Mandodari’s cook, ‘Namthip’, in stanza 102. These literary materials perpetuate the traditional narrative surrounding Mandodari, indicating that the perception of Mandodari in Thai society has remained largely unchanged. Even in contemporary society, the Fine Arts Department has presented a Khon performance in the ‘Mandodari Devi’ series. The content of this series remains consistent with the version of Ramakien from King Rama I’s era and continues to focus on Mandodari’s birth as a frog and the episode involving ‘Namthip’ the cook. This continuity demonstrates that, in today’s society, the perception of Mandodari’s narrative aligns with its historical representation and has not evolved in the present.

Furthermore, the theme of otherness and peculiarity extends beyond the royal court culture and touches upon the concept of ‘Mandodari’ within folk culture. Folk songs for children reflect this notion, as evidenced by verses such as ‘Mandodari has a one-sided bigger breast; Ravana, who has a crooked mouth, flirts with her’ (Jitraphasa, 2017). Notably, Mom Rajawongse Kukrit Pramoj, a former Prime Minister of Thailand, explained that this peculiar depiction is attributed to Ravana’s twenty hands disproportionately thumping one side of Mandodari’s breast, resulting in abnormal growth (Jitraphasa, 2020). This further illustrates how Thai society continues to associate Mandodari with otherness, particularly in her relationship with Ravana as a sexual object and her physical attributes. Furthermore, an additional narrative persists, highlighting the exotic nature of Mandodari. In a particular rendition of the Ramakien, it is recounted that Indrajit, Ravana’s son, was breastfed by his mother, Mandodari, even into adulthood. This narrative is not widely recognized or endorsed in the mainstream Ramayana tradition, but it is present in Thai culture under the name ‘Kashira Thara’, meaning ‘The Holy Milk’. According to this story, when Indrajit was mortally wounded by Lakshmana and in considerable pain, Mandodari, driven by maternal compassion, allowed her adult son to partake of her sacred white milk, which miraculously healed his wounds and alleviated his suffering. Depictions of this narrative can be found in various forms of Thai art, including paintings, performances, and sculptures, thereby reinforcing and perpetuating the exoticized aspects of Mandodari’s character within Thai cultural expressions as follows Figure 1:

Figure 1. The sculpture of Ramakien in Petchaburi, Thailand portrays the moment when Mandodari feeds holy milk to Indrajit. This image depicts Mandodari unclothed and leads to the folk idiom that she possesses one unusually large breast.

(Source: Misc.today, 2020).

In summary, across different historical periods, from the past to the present, the significance of Mandodari remains intrinsically linked to notions of otherness and characteristics that diverge from those attributed to typical human beings. The concept of Mandodari continues to be perpetuated with its original connotations, remaining closely connected to the initial meaning established in the Ramakien authored by King Rama I. The enduring association of Mandodari with the concept of otherness reflects the continuity of Thai ideology over time, highlighting how certain cultural perceptions and stereotypes persist through generations.

From provided context, the discussion of this article centers on Mandodari as a focal point of Otherness in the Ramakien, both in Royal and folk culture, due to the perceptions of Thai people. Especially among the elite worldwide, Mandodari embodies the traditional Thai concept of sexuality. Mandodari’s polygamy, being both Vali’s and Ravana’s wife, challenges societal norms, particularly in elite Thai where such characteristic are not accepted. The practice of transferring wives among elite men of Siam or acquiring wives who were previously married, exemplified by Mandodari being initially Vali’s wife and later was adopted as Ravana’s consort, reinforces Ravana’s inferiority. Given the Siamese elite’s valuation of virginity and monogamy, Mandodari’s portrayal with six husbands diminishes her status from a virtuous woman, serving as a literary tool to underscore Ravana’s inferiority. Mandodari’s lack of agency in her marital decisions, often being given as a wife to Ravana, reflects the patriarchal nature of Siamese elite society. Such depictions contribute to a diminished portrayal of Ravana compared to Sita, who is presented as pure and loyal to her husband Rama, further enhancing Rama’s image.

Moreover, this article addresses various issues. Firstly, it applies the theory of sexuality to the study of the Ramakien. As mentioned in the literature review section, the study of the Ramayana in Thai society still employs a rather limited methodology, often focusing on its relationship with art, including performing arts, and viewed through the lens of folklore. Although previous studies of the Ramakien have highlighted its importance in Thai society, this article seeks to establish a common ground between the Ramakien, sexuality, otherness, and power constructs within the social and historical context of early Bangkok. This endeavor fills an important gap in the study of the Ramakien in Thai society.

Secondly, it explores the concept of sexual otherness in Thai history and literature. Past studies on otherness in Thai society, such as the works of Castro-Woodhouse (2020), Loos (2008), Prasannam (2011) Reeder (2017, 2021), and Winichakul (2000), aim to present the context of otherness during the transition period to modern Siam, particularly during the era influenced by the West. These studies have predominantly focused on issues of ethnicity. However, previous examinations of otherness have largely overlooked the study of early Bangkok, especially during the late 18th century. Therefore, this article plays a crucial role in completing the body of knowledge by highlighting that issues regarding sexuality were significant in the social context of early Bangkok. It demonstrates how the Ramayana delineates characteristic of good and bad women, portraying a good woman worthy of being a king’s wife as someone like Sita, while a woman who is perceived as inferior, and also making her husband look inferior, is depicted as a woman like Mandodari. Finally, Rama’s idealized portrayal, including having a good, complete, and perfect partner, represents the archetype of the ideal king in early Bangkok society. Consequently, the Ramayana is vital as a literary work that reflects the prototype and ideals of kings in Thai society through the qualifications of Rama.

Conclusion

Ramakien, regarded as one of the seminal works of Thai literature, prominently embodies its core values, inextricably linked to the portrayal of the Thai monarchy. Within this epic, the character of Rama emerges as an archetype of an exemplary hero and a benevolent monarch, conspicuously endowed with attributes of prosperity, civility, and merit. In contrast, Ravana is depicted as a character of stark contrast, portrayed as uncivilized and savage, a distinction that is accentuated through the portrayal of his principal consort, Mandodari. The delineation of female protagonists in Ramakien assumes significant import in the portrayal of Rama’s idealized persona. The narrative emphasizes the alterity and subordination of Mandodari, Ravana’s consort, thereby further underscoring the sanctified image of an ideal woman akin to Sita, who stands as Rama’s consort. Sita, positioned by her husband’s side, is presented with the same dignity and virtue as Rama, in stark contrast to Mandodari, who is portrayed as equivalent to Ravana, the antagonist of the narrative. The paradigm and representation of Rama’s prosperity and merit can be construed as emblematic of the idealized image of a magnanimous monarch at the epicenter of state power.

This comprehensive depiction of the monarch extends to the inclusion of a meritorious spouse, such as Sita, whose presence is deemed indispensable in upholding notions of purity, civilization, and merit, thereby ensuring her parity with Rama, the illustrious monarch. These elements collectively contribute to the enhancement of Rama’s image as a representative of kingship in Thai society. The representation of Sita in Ramakien is inextricably associated with the concept of ‘the ideal queen, a belief rooted in the idea that physically attractive women possessed a ‘virtue’ allure, synonymous with purity, innocence, and virtue. This idealized femininity conforms to the qualities of beauty, grace, purity, and virtuous character epitomized by Sita in the narrative, rendering her a fitting partner for the idealized king. Conversely, Mandodari, characterized by her contrasting attributes, is depicted as exotic and divergent in appearance due to her non-human lineage, with her physical beauty exaggerated and her portrayal resembling that of a primitive woman with multiple husbands. This representation aligns with the Ravana’s portrayal characterized as uncivilized, barbaric, and lascivious. They cast Mandodari as a sexual object within the context of early Bangkok period and thereby subjugating her under the discourse of power. By so doing, Mandodari emerges as a narrative’s victim of political manipulation and wartime deception, which, in turn, casts a shadow on her husband, Ravana, positioning him as inferior to Rama. Thus, the creation of the Ramakien is extraordinary for its origin as it reflects the culture of sexuality in the royal court of King Rama I’s, highlighting the new relationship between this epic and the Thai monarchy.

Acknowledgement

This paper is part of the research project titled “Mandodari: A Trap of Self-Orientalism on Female Protagonists in Ramakien,” funded by the Research and Innovation Institute of Excellence, Walailak University, under grant number WU66259. Above all, I extend my heartfelt thanks to Assistant Professor Dr. Thanapas Dejpawuttikul, the head of the research unit at the School of Liberal Arts, and Assistant Professor Dr. Budi Waluyo, for the invaluable comments and suggestions that greatly improved this work until it appeared in the final version. However, all errors should be mine.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by an individual research grant from Walailak University under Grant number WU66259.

Notes on contributors

Korrakot Kumhaeng

Korrakot Kumhaeng received a bachelor’s degree in Thai literature from Kasetsart University and a master’s degree in Thai from Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. He has a specific interest in Thai literature and literary criticism, particularly literature from the early Bangkok period and late 18th-century Thai literature. Korrakot has a deep interest in the Ramayana, a subject he has studied extensively since his master’s degree level. His research into the Ramayana has led him to explore various intriguing issues presented in this significant literary work.

Notes

1 From original text “งามพักตร์ยิ่งชั้นมหาราช งามวิลาสล้ำนางในดึงสา งามเนตรยิ่งเนตรในยามา งามนาสิกล้ำในดุษฏี งามโอษฐ์งามกรรณงามปราง ยิ่งนางในนิมาราศี งามเกศยิ่งเกศกัลยาณี อันมีในชั้นนิรมิต ทั้งหกห้องฟ้าไม่หาได้ ด้วยทรงลักษณ์วิไลไพจิตร ใครเห็นเป็นที่เพ่งพิศ ทั้งไตรภพจบทิศไม่เทียมทัน”.

2 From original text “บัดนั้น ชมพูพานฤทธิแรงแข็งขัน ชี้หน้าร้องว่าแก่กุมภัณฑ์ ไอ้อาธรรม์ลูกหลายบิดา แต่พาลีทศพักตร์แล้วมิหนำ าพญาพิเภกยักษา ทั้งหนุมานผู้ชาญฤทธา ยังว่าไม่สาแก่น้ำใจ กูเห็นเอ็งนี้กตัญญู สู้ไปเมืองมลิวันได้ พาท้าวจักรวรรดิชาญชัย มาส่งให้มารดาถึงธานี”.