A case for film as an andragogical tool for business schools in Africa: Trends, challenges and prospects

ABSTRACT

This article extends the work of existing studies on the development of learners to be ethical leaders in Africa. It makes a case for the use of film as an andragogical tool in the education of adult learners in Africa. Premised on social learning theory, the paper proposes that film, as an audio-visual case study that offers a cinematic experience, accommodates students’ varying learning styles. It is found to be resourceful in the dissemination of ideas or knowledge of particularly recommended subjects such as leadership and ethics. Purely based on secondary data, key themes uncovering the challenges and prospects of using film, especially in Nigeria are discussed. In addition to the systematic literature review results showing a poor trend of film usage in Africa higher education settings, a strong case was made for the use of film analysis given its practical relevance, components, and benefits. Beyond achieving the set objectives, a key contribution is the proposition for an enhanced reflective practice to accentuate the third phase of social learning theory and promote experiential learning which is more engaging for students. Future studies can gather primary data to explore how film is used in African business schools and evaluate its impact on adult learners.

KEYWORDS:

• film analysis
• andragogy
• social learning theory
• servant leadership
• observational learning
• African business school

1. Introduction

How people learn has been an intriguing subject for decades. Both scholars and philosophers alike began investigating the origins of learning, its components and whether knowledge is found within or from experience. These inquiries brought about a plethora of important learning theories, which are still relevant because the ability to learn enables individuals to adapt to changing environments (Brown, 2023). In essence, with the ever-changing nature of business, there is a commensurate need for evolving learning techniques, especially tailored to adults who work in the business environment. This emphasises the need for learning institutions to adopt a multidimensional and dynamic phenomenon such as andragogy (Merriam, 2008) in the education of adult learners. Besides, technological advancement has increased the demand for varying learning or delivery techniques (Chang, 2020), one of which is film, a useful but underexplored learning tool in Africa.

Hence, in this review paper, the author makes a case for the use of film as an andragogical tool for African business schools. Based on secondary data, trends, merits, and challenges of using film are discussed to re-echo Maroun and Joosub’s (2012) call for the replication of teaching practices that incorporate film in the African curriculum. Nigeria is used as a case study and future inquirers are called to examine how film can be successfully incorporated into the African curriculum. The three objectives of this inquiry, therefore, are: to examine the trend in the use of film in African higher education (Business schools), to make a case for using film as a relevant andragogical tool, and to investigate some of the challenges and prospects of using film in Africa.

Additionally, a practical example of how educators have used film in the UK is discussed with recommended subjects that can be taught using film in Africa. The key contribution of the paper lies in the author’s articulation of how film (its components, content, benefit/impact and relevance) can be a resourceful tool for educating future business managers as an audio-visual version of case studies. Building on existing literature, the review also contributes to the discourse of adult learning, by highlighting the role of role models/characters and viewers/observers based on the social learning theory.

2. Andragogy

Andragogy is the adult learning concept that requires a facilitator and adult learner relationship in the learning process (Shikha, 2015). A major contributor, Malcolm Knowles, characterised adult learners as individuals who can draw from their life experiences to assist with learning and apply new knowledge to real-life problems and situations (Fairbanks, 2021; Shikha, 2015). This kind of experience-based learning is very insightful in enabling learners to own their development process and reflect on their actions. This does not mean educators are exempted from the learning process because they play a major role in determining the relevant formal and informal theories that guide their teaching practice (Gouthro, 2019). Such informal theories, which are independently conceived or shaped by individual experiences, enable educators to understand how to do things; they also impact their actions and approach to teaching in both formal and informal settings (Gouthro, 2019).

The formal theories, including behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist theories (Taneja et al., 2023) and experiential learning theory (Dean et al., 2020) are also important and indicative of the variety of learning approaches that can be explored. As Merriam (2008, p. 94) pointed out, adult learning theory “is a dynamic area of research and theory building … a complex phenomenon that can never be reduced to a single, simple explanation”. This indicates that learning is a multidimensional activity which is not purely cognitive (Merriam, 2008) and therefore calls for diverse ways of enabling students to learn. Wood’s (2006) six ways of experiencing learning are very insightful in this regard. According to Wood (2006, p. 53), learning starts from increasing one’s knowledge to memorising and reproducing, applying the knowledge, understanding it, seeing things from a different perspective to changing as an individual or person. The implication of these different efforts is perhaps towards enabling the students to learn and make a significant change or improvement in any given field or endeavour.

One can argue from a holistic perspective that these different theories are unique parts of what learning entails in its entirety. Besides, some elements of these theories overlap. The essence, therefore, is to probably create a more encompassing concept that maximises the strengths of the different formal theories. They can be combined with informal theories, which is instructive and useful in different contexts (Gouthro, 2019). For example, non-western context such as Africa has a more communal orientation, where learning exceeds the individual learner (Merriam, 2008). However, African business educators and adult learners, like adult education anywhere else, also face the challenge of reconciling theory with experience (Gouthro, 2019). Unlike science classes with different practical experiments to undertake, business and management courses do not offer such hands-on exercises to support experiential learning. Yet, as Brown’s (2023) study shows, educational exercises such as learning through observation could provide students with valuable learning experiences.

Hence, social learning theory by Albert Bandura underpins this study’s proposition for using film in African business schools. This is because of its observational learning orientation that encompasses the role of the learner, the facilitator or role model and the impact of the environment or context of learning (Bandura, 1977). Besides, it seems an outstanding point about learning is its impact on learners’ knowledge, skills and abilities or behaviours which Bandura’s theory encompasses. More so, if learning is evidenced by the change in learners’ behaviours or perspectives (Wood, 2006), the theory can advance the case for using film as a viable andragogical tool for African Business Schools.

2.1. Theoretical Framework

2.1.1. Social Learning Theory (SLT)

Social learning theory supposes that learners vicariously acquire knowledge by observing role models (Bandura, 1977). Regardless of the model used, be it words, pictures or actions, the modelling process is the same and can bring about innovative behaviours and the enactment of codes of conduct (Bandura, 1977). However, it is the method that could impact learners’ level of attention. Therefore, it seems reasonable to suggest that modelling can be done via the use of film. Given that it comprises different elements, film could effectively limit passivity (Bharath, 2021) or draw learners’ attention. Attention, which is the first of the four processes of observational learning requires that learners, based on their experience, desires and cognition, should attentively observe the modelled behaviours, values, and features of the activity (Bandura, 1977).

The second stage or “retention” requires learners to remember the behaviour if they will be impacted by it. Hence, behaviours must be symbolically presented using images and words or visual and audio systems. Learners can also retain behaviours via mental rehearsal of what they have observed (Bandura, 1977). Traditionally, when learners observe role models performing a task successfully, it can increase their self-efficacy in mastering their performance (Kwon et al., 2022; Ma, 2022). The third process, motor reproduction, involves responding or acting on the retained or acquired knowledge by initiating, refining, monitoring, and organising responses from given feedback. The learners’ skills and abilities have a role to play here, but can be improved via correction and self-reflection (Bandura, 1977). That is, SLT has operant and cognitive perspectives which indicates that learners can display learnt behaviours (Hanna et al., 2013) especially those with positive or valuable outcomes.

Role models play an important role in demonstrating and incentivising desirable behaviours or not rewarding bad ones. This “motivation” is the fourth process of observational learning, which entails influencing the behaviours learners reproduce (Bandura, 1977). SLT, therefore, adequately captures the relationship between the observer and the observed in the learning relationship. The idea is that a learner’s cognition is required, which is in tandem with cognitive learning theories. Additionally, the actions learnt will lead to a change in behaviours, since SLT requires that learners reproduce observed behaviours as embodied by the behaviourist approach to learning (Taneja et al., 2023). These are ways in which SLT somewhat overlaps with other theories. The element of reflection in the third stage is particularly important in making a case for the experiential learning film promotes (Ayikoru & Park, 2019; Desai et al., 2018).

2.1.2. Film and Learning Theory

Overall, based on social learning theory, modelling involves representing or performing behaviours that learners can observe and emulate or reproduce (Bandura, 1991). Employees equally learn via observing mentors, which suggests that knowledge can be acquired through experience whether performed or observed (Brown, 2023). Moreover, observational learning can help students develop correction skills, error detection and other skills (Kwon et al., 2022). Hence, observational learning is useful for students as role models could also be observed by electronic media including film.

Besides, within a multidimensional space, adult learning involves narrative learning where learners appreciate different stories (Merriam, 2008). Such art of storytelling and the use of role-play are established learning strategies, which are also elements of film. For example, film is used to tell stories of people’s dreams, hopes, fears and challenges (Desai et al., 2018). It is worth noting that the art of storytelling is embedded in the informal and formal learning practices in Africa. Nigeria, for example, has oral traditions or informal methods of learning where folklore and stories are passed down from one generation to the other (Akande, 2020). Hence, this idea of showcasing and sharing knowledge via stories using a cinematic format would not be too strange in a formal setting.

Gouthro (2019) in examining how fiction writing could encourage learners to explore different worldviews recorded that the fusion of such reflective practice and formal theory expands the focus of discussions beyond a homogenous group. Such knowledge is particularly important for students who seek to work in organisations with diverse groups requiring multicultural awareness. This is not far-fetched, especially in a globalised world where nations are becoming melting pots of diverse cultures. The use of film is particularly relevant to the field of business and management, as an instrument that enables the viewer to vicariously experience or learn about work and the complex and subtle actions of people in different cultural settings and timeframes (Ayikoru & Park, 2019; Bell, 2008).

As Bell (2008) rightly pointed out, film is a more globalized medium of communication that is readily accessible and offers the potential for historical analysis and the validation of management theories. Moreover, management as an art or science is open to new inventions and requires consistent evolution (Aoki & Santos, 2020). Given that film is produced yearly and often reflective of modern trends, one wonders if its potential is not needlessly relegated to the background. Two decades earlier when technology was not as advanced as is obtainable today, Champoux (1999) had contended that film is a better learning tool because of the combined auditory and visual effects which convey a stronger message than spoken words and printed media. For instance, the movie characters will serve as role models whose actions will be observed by the viewers or learners. This kind of edutainment offers the students an individualised learning experience opportunity (Content-Engine, 2023). The tutor as the facilitator also plays a role as an equal agent in the adult learning process (Shikha, 2015) and it is to educate students on relevant concepts that will underpin the film analysis.

2.2. African Business Students

Building on the reviews by Mishra and Maiko (2017) and Liedong (2017), this paper strongly supports the moral education of higher education students as emerging ambassadors or future managers, who will promote ethical practices as opposed to corruption and bad leadership in Africa. Mishra and Maiko (2017) made a good case for how business schools can serve as the minority group that is committed to changing society via radical ethical leadership, care ethics and action research via observing role models. This observational learning style is quite instructive. However, Liedong (2017), proposed that instead of observing elderly role models, students should become institutional entrepreneurs; contending that pursuing ethics is not sufficient for tackling systemic corruption.

Liedong’s entrepreneurial proposition, where students turn social issues into business ventures which can strengthen community identity and sharpen their business acumen, is also very considerable, although not without its limitations because students could fake their community identity for profitability. Notwithstanding, Liedong’s (2017) constructive criticisms of Mishra and Maiko’s suggestion are considerable in that action research is costly and observing elders who may be corrupt themselves may only heighten the problem than solve it. Hence, their approach is critiqued for being less considerate of the sociocultural feature of the continent (Liedong, 2017). A feasible way forward could be that the role models Mishra and Maiko (2017) proposed are those who already hold to ethical standards in word and practice. Arguably, such individuals do exist regardless of their location, albeit limited in areas where corruption has become an institution of its own (Liedong, 2017). Both studies, however, did not explore the use of film in educating students on emotive subjects of ethics and leadership, which is a key contribution of this paper.

3. Method

This is a qualitative study mostly based on secondary data. The researcher conducted a structured review by collecting published materials to achieve the three core research objectives of the study. A systematic review was conducted to achieve objective one (to examine the trend in the use of film in Africa higher education or Business schools). The systematic review was conducted in a reproducible, systematic, and transparent way, based on key terms relevant to the chosen topic (Snyder, 2019). The other two objectives were achieved based on a semi-structured review of the literature. With this approach, the author purposively chose studies that have similar scope or focus relevant to the research objectives. Hence, the reviews chosen are those that have content that could be used to make a case for using film as a significant andragogical tool and those that cover the challenges and prospects of using film in Nigeria. The collected data were synthesized and analysed using thematic analysis based on the three steps of data familiarisation, coding and generation of broad themes, revision and defining of themes and creation of the report (Nowell et al., 2017).

3.1. Findings and Discussion

The insightful findings are discussed based on the research objectives.

3.1.1. Film Usage: Trend in African Business Schools

Arguably, in today’s digitized age, most people, including a good proportion of students spend time on the internet. There is, therefore, increasing access to film or visual content, which could have brought about a proliferation of its usage. However, its potential is yet to be maximized within business schools (Chang, 2020). While there has been some significant interest and improvement in the Western world due to its demand and relevance, it seems most countries in Africa, including Nigeria, are yet to maximize or even realize the significance of film as an analytical technique (Tadesse, 2016). This could be because film is mostly for entertainment (Bharath, 2021; Champoux, 1999) and, at best, enlightenment. However, it is hoped that its academic relevance would encourage filmmakers to produce content for learners in higher education.

To date, there remains a paucity of research on the use of film in the delivery of learning content in Africa. A case in point is the lack of published journal articles focused on the use of Nigerian movies or films in the academic discourse. To examine the extent to which film has been used in African business schools, a systematic search was conducted using an online library of a reputable institution that accesses several databases and academic resources. This is because a systematic review is useful for capturing the state of affairs within a given field and the use of relevant inclusion criteria could enable the researchers to focus on materials relevant to their study (Snyder, 2019). The first search was done with the keywords “film analysis” which produced 513,097 papers. When another term was introduced, “film analysis in Africa”, the search produced 6,431 results. Afterwards, the inclusion criteria were applied such that all publications other than peer-reviewed journals/ejournals were excluded resulting in 3,465 papers. Exempting other languages or limiting output to only the English language brought about 3,426 papers.

Based on disciplines, the search was further limited to business, economics and education, regardless of their date of publication, which resulted in 125 papers. Upon further limitation to the subjects of learning and business, the output was reduced to 27 papers only. However, following additional examination of the abstracts, the content and focus of 21 papers were more aligned to specific actors and the financial or business perspective of the film industry in general, which is not relevant to the scope of the current study. Hence, out of the 27 papers, only six were somewhat relevant to the discourse of film in a business, academic or learning sense. Overall, the search was conducted without restrictions on the paper’s date of publication. The earliest published work is slightly over a decade (2012) and the most recent was published in 2022. This review was conducted on a cross-sectional basis between October 2022-May 2023. The limitation of the chosen method, however, is that potential materials from excluded published books or relevant book chapters may have been missed, so future studies can further explore their content.

As shown in Table 1, four of the six reviewed papers are mostly reviews/conceptual pieces focused on the relevance of film/film industry with some connection to its learning potentials, whilst the two empirical papers (one quantitative and one qualitative paper) had some direct academic implications (Campbell, 2022; Maroun & Joosub, 2012). The core themes that came out of these six papers are inadequacy and the potential of film usage, that is the inadequate use of film in academia and its potential for learning. This is not surprising because using film in business education is in its nascent stage. The empirical study by Maroun and Joosub (2012) highlighting how students appreciated the use of film is quite telling and emphasises the need for its potentials to be further explored. Specifically, Maroun and Joosub’s (2012) study is an exemplary piece focused on the practical use of a film in the African classroom. Their exploratory study based on a survey of students’ knowledge of the reading before and after watching the movie is particularly insightful. Besides “students commented that the movie had been worthwhile because it provided them with ‘real-world’ examples of the issues that they were exposed to in lecture materials and the professional standards” (Maroun & Joosub, 2012, p. 107).

Table 1. Reviewed Journals.

Authors	Journal	Method	Context	Core codes	Film Element
Akande (2020)	Film Education Journal	Review paper	Nigeria movie industry	Nollywood Pedagogy	Film studies Learning
Campbell (2022)	Changing English	Qualitative: Auto ethnography	South Africa Teaching practice (secondary school)	Lecture reflection, Pedagogy, Engagement with colleagues	Film: Tsotsi Wealth and poverty divide
Mancosu (2021)	Journal of Modern Italian Studies	Review paper	Italian East Africa	Cinematic experience, Fascist society	Film consumption Learning
Maroun and Joosub (2012)	Accounting Research Journal	Quantitative: survey	HE in South Africa: Accounting students	Teaching auditing students, Active learning	Film: Rogue Trader Adult learning
Tadesse (2016)	North East African Studies	Review paper	Ethiopia movie industry	Revolution, Knowledge	Different films and core themes
Tomova (2018)	Marketing and branding research	Secondary data (industry empirical survey)	Bulgarian film Industry	Economic contribution of the film industry	Cinema as a market sector

Indeed, the use of film should be a welcome innovation for Africa; even though Maroun and Joosub (2012) chose a British movie, when the current proposition is for African films, their stated reasons and purposes are considerable. There is no ban on using films from other countries and contexts, especially if the module aims to showcase foreign cultures as such films can enable inductive reasoning that could impact the way students see the world (Diaz Vidal et al., 2020). The qualitative study by Campbell (2022) is based on a self-reflective practice or autoethnography mapping her learning and unlearning journey via dialoguing with colleagues and students who engaged in watching a film for her class. Her journey is insightful with some positive learning outcomes and agreeably, there are pros and cons of using film in the classroom and like any other learning tool, it is not perfect but useful.

The conceptual reviews particularly highlight the limited use of film and its relevance or need in students’ education. Akande (2020) in reviewing the Nigeria movie industry, Nollywood, implicated neocolonial issues, highlighting the de-westernised pedagogy or informal observational learning practices that heralded the industry prior to the formalisation of film studies in Nigeria higher education. Tadesse (2016) discussed how historical films perpetuate an ideological interpretation of the 1974 Ethiopian revolution and acknowledged that academic examination of the Ethiopian film industry is lacking. Tomova (2018) explored the Bulgarian film industry in a broader sense with a focus on employment, its cultural product and entertainment, while noting that, if any, there is limited academic interest in the industry. Mancosu (2021) examined film consumption within a period focusing on the Fascist empire of Italian East Africa, which is more of its consumption as an enlightenment tool than application in formal academia per se. These reviews point to the relevance of film as a tool for perpetuating ideologies or learning, albeit there is a noticeable caution in the limited interest in aligning film to academia. Yet, current limitations is not a strong case for relegation of film as a learning tool.

3.1.2. Case for Film as an Andragogical Tool

Learning via observation is a considerable experiential learning technique described as fun for students and different from traditional classroom lectures (Brown, 2023). Underpinned by social learning theory which supports observational learning (Kwon et al., 2022), this paper makes a case for using film as a useful andragogical tool for teaching business and management students in higher education on different fronts. The resulting themes to achieve this second objective of how film can be used as an andragogical tool are practical relevance, components, benefits/impact, usage and context.

Practical Relevance

First, film analysis or discussion is not entirely new, as it has been used by renowned business schools in the West. Different scholars have also analysed a film (Aoki & Santos, 2020) or discussed their experience of teaching diverse concepts using film. Some of these concepts include cross-cultural management (Desai et al., 2018), diversity (Chang, 2020), ethics (O'Boyle & Sandonà, 2013) leadership (Bartlett et al., 2020; Islam, 2009; Warner, 2007) bad leadership (Edwards et al., 2015), tourism (Ayikoru & Park, 2019) economics (Diaz Vidal et al., 2020) auditing (Maroun & Joosub, 2012) and training public administrators (Bharath, 2021), amongst others. In Africa, a filmmaker engaged the indigenous communities of Cameroun and Nigeria in folk filmmaking which entails a participatory film production that allows participants to share their knowledge of moral challenges and morality tales which were oriented towards challenging issues of corruption and marginalisation (Amir, 2019). Lucas and colleagues (2020) following their thematic analysis of the Nigerian film, Black November, concluded that film could serve as a useful instrument for managing the conflict in Niger Delta, the oil-rich region of Nigeria. Even if it is just for peace’s sake, one can agree that educating the masses via film is worth exploring.

Components of Film

Film encompasses different elements, subtitles, visuals, audio and cinematic experience, which supports the varying learning styles of adult learners from audio/auditory to visual, kinaesthetic and reading styles (Muijsenberg et al., 2023). That is, it is advantageous because of its audio-visual (Champoux, 1999) or multisensorial element that provides varying meanings to concepts and theories (Chang, 2020). Just like case studies with narrative or storytelling technique that highlights business issues of the given case, film also has its setting and characters that present issues requiring resolution. Hence, beyond the view of using film as a visual case study, films have their language as presented in music, colours, lenses, and editing (Chang, 2020). As a cultural artefact, film has its unique plot and context and both verbal and nonverbal attributes can be deduced from films (Bartlett et al., 2020). Its cultural resources will enable a deeper exploration of concepts as is the case for observational studies (Aoki & Santos, 2020). Besides, with the availability of subtitles, there are fewer barriers to accessing films from different countries. Champoux's (1999) assertion that some students can resist foreign films with English subtitles, is considerable, though one can reckon that the post-pandemic world is way evolved. The cinema creates a unique experience for learners such that the editing, shots, and camera focusing technique produce images that exceed a simple recording of reality and invites viewers to identify with the movie characters (Warner, 2007).

Benefits and Impact of Film

Film is a methodology that supports the conveyance of meaning and ideologies it presents (Aoki & Santos, 2020) and impacts the students’ perception of themselves and the world (Bharath, 2021; Diaz Vidal et al., 2020). According to Dean and colleagues (2020, p. 570) “experiential pedagogy by design taps into students’ emotional engagement and personal commitment to their learning”. With its potential to draw observers’ empathy and depict emotion-driven concepts (Chang, 2020) film could emotionally engage students (Ayikoru & Park, 2019) to experience or empathise with the actions of the characters they watch. Such engagement of students’ emotions in reflexivity adds to their experiential learning (Brown, 2023; Lim et al., 2022). Albeit the emotional response may also vary, as films can both positively impact emotions or produce fear, which can inhibit learning if the film negatively impacts the students (Bharath, 2021). Indeed, viewers’ perceptions of film are subjective, hence the variability of their responses (Chang, 2020). Hence, care should be taken in the selection of an appropriate film because it is a technique without emotional harm that enhances students’ learning (Dean et al., 2020).

Film Usage

Film, as a visual case study, can be used for reflective practice (Ayikoru & Park, 2019) to improve students’ analytical skills (Champoux, 1999), enabling them to engage intellectually as they are stimulated to deeply understand the material instead of passively receiving information. Following the analysis of the scenes in the film can help students to form an opinion about subjects since the focus is on discovery as they make connections between theory and practice (Bharath, 2021). Since images and data are sources that students use to better interpret their world, film makes it possible for them to actively use their visual literacy (Chang, 2020). Besides, in the technologically driven environment of today, student engagement is crucial to limit passivity.

Bharath (2021) shared similar sentiments as they echoed the fact that film can combat passive learning though it could be dependent on the length of watch time spent in class. For example, longer time spent showing a feature film could detract from the overall time spent in class studying or result in passive learning (Sprau & Keig, 2001). Tutors can use short films to combat such issues. Nonetheless, Champoux (1999) argued that learners are not passive spectators of film, because they respond to film in ways that make it a powerful learning resource. It also encourages the use of a deep approach to learning where students can focus on the meaning of what is being learnt, thereby internalizing the knowledge acquired (Ayikoru & Park, 2019). Based on the depicted reality, film can enable students to be more open to others by accessing emotional and moral resources that will equip them to consider different perspectives in their decision-making (Bharath, 2021).

Film also acts as a phenomenological metaphor that enables learners to broaden their arguments and scope of learning (Aoki & Santos, 2020). More so, at a psychological level, media gratifies intrinsically since it fosters a sense of meaning, insight and social connectedness (Chang, 2020) and could function as a metaphor, a satire, an experience, a case and as meaning (Champoux, 1999). This case for film analysis does not, however, detract from the use of written media. This is because, at a cerebral level, the left brain is said to be suited to deductive tasks aligned with written and oral media while the right brain specializes in an intuitive task that visual media promotes (Chang, 2020).

Context

Film is also useful in disseminating core beliefs and heightens the visibility of cultural categories (Islam, 2009). It is an acclaimed instrument for expressing popular culture or daily practices of a society within a particular timeframe (Bell, 2008; Islam, 2009). These benefits are not limited to a specific culture, boundary, or nation, so their usage can somewhat be universally applicable. Albeit through the dialogues, scenes and characters, a film can help depict the ambiguities and nuances of cultures in a single instance (Desai et al., 2018). That is, it can enable one to see and experience the different food, dialect, attire, customs, and language of a specific culture.

However, Bharath (2021) asserted that most Western-centric movies have some bias and stereotypes that may not have sufficient depth of cultural diversity or may be less appealing to people of colour. To the degree that this assertion is true, it seems utilizing films that circumvent such issues or offer a closer outlook of the African perspective in foreign classrooms is crucial. Given the uniqueness of cultures, one can contend that Afro-centric films should take centre stage in the depiction of African culture. Western cultures can also benefit from African films because they can move from the approach of just telling or knowledge sharing about Africa to enabling diverse students to better understand issues as viewed by Africans (Ansell, 2002).

It has also been reported that African education is more reflective of what happens in the Western world, as most materials are repackaged concepts from Europe and even case studies rarely reflect the African culture or business environment (Honig & Hjortsø, 2018). This could advance the case for film since African nations have their indigenous movies or films (Tadesse, 2016). Interestingly, African filmmakers have reconstructed Africa’s image via their movies (Ansell, 2002), which are worth showcasing for the world to capture the actual perspective of African culture. Implicitly, film could serve as a step to seeing management from the African perspective. This could open avenues for scholars to potentially map out management theories suited to the African context. Akande (2020) alluded to this by speculating that theories can come in a different form based on African epistemology especially following the decolonization of the African knowledge-creation process.

3.1.3. Challenges and Prospects of Using Film in Nigeria

Delimitation

There are different challenges in Africa from the issues of corruption (Honig & Hjortsø, 2018) to having too many students in a class or large classrooms (Maroun & Joosub, 2012). To further discuss these challenges, the Nigerian context is reviewed as a case in point. In general, the Nigerian educational system is plagued with more stringent issues than this paper covers, including poor funding by the government, infrastructural deficit, and regular industrial disputes which lead to prolonged academic programs and subsequently make students leave for pastures new in other countries (IseOlorunkanmi et al., 2021). For this review, this section is delimited to the challenges of incorporating film into the higher education curriculum in the Nigerian context. As an extension of the reviews by Mishra and Maiko (2017) and Liedong (2017), the focus is on the challenges of using film for educating students on ethics and leadership courses.

Some of such challenges that could hamper the inclusion of film in Nigeria’s curriculum are issues of accessibility, inadequate resources, or facility, (IseOlorunkanmi et al., 2021) and lack of knowledge of the technique of film analysis. Although these challenges will be acknowledged and discussed, it is worth noting that a positive outlook is required if change is desired. For example, due to globalization, more tutors are seeking better pedagogical techniques for their students (Desai et al., 2018) and there is an increasing migration of Nigerians abroad for studies. This could be a desire for better education in addition to most people’s desire to search for greener pastures. Nonetheless, those who are not availed of such opportunities also deserve quality education and it seems every step towards such improvement should be considered. Hence, the paper aims to propose ways of enhancing the learning experiences of students and circumventing discussed challenges. The themes arising from this review are the gap in knowledge, accessibility issues and choice of film. The prospects and potential solutions to these issues are also embedded in the discussion.

Gap in Knowledge

Based on the review findings, film analysis is a novel approach in the Nigerian context resulting in the knowledge gap. Logically, the first step is the training of the tutors/educators themselves. They first need to be adequately equipped with the knowledge of film analysis as a technique for business and management courses before they can educate others. Though more graduates tend to seek ways to stay abroad (IseOlorunkanmi et al., 2021), most educators with foreign degrees, who return to Africa, may be familiar with this technique. Nonetheless, for educators who may not have been familiar with using film, institutions can provide cost-effective learning opportunities for their development. Individually, educators can also study relevant materials, including the work of O'Boyle and Sandonà (2013), who based on experiential analysis, gave great insights on how students can be tutored to maximize the resources of film in learning about ethics.

Thereafter, lecturers should arm students with tools relevant to a critical analysis of the film. The basic knowledge of what film analysis entails is crucial because film could be both informative and disorienting/can miseducate students (Bharath, 2021), especially as it somewhat distorts reality with most having a happy ending contrary to reality (Champoux, 1999). Though one can contend that the type of film or movie is a determining factor of its end, the emphasis is that fundamental knowledge of film analysis is required, even including how to reference a film (Bharath, 2021). Importantly, the underpinning framework or subject should be taught to students to enable them to watch and interpret the film with the academic lenses required.

This can be done iteratively as Edward and colleagues (2015) demonstrated in their exploration of the critical perspective of leadership through film, where they engaged students in the viewing, discussion and analysis of the chosen film and highlighted how certain scenes or characters portrayed bad leadership or exemplified toxicity. Tutors can also take on a flipped classroom approach where they assign the students relevant materials before the class and facilitate classroom activities that enable peer contribution and deepen their understanding of the field of study (Desai et al., 2018; Oh et al., 2019). Importantly, the core purpose of using film is not to just add fun to the curriculum but to enable students to relate to the overarching ethical theme being portrayed. Engaging students in ethical decision-making is to enable them to develop critical thinking skills (O'Boyle & Sandonà, 2013), and to engage in self-regulation of their moral behaviours. The instructor can therefore aid students to identify ethical practices, promote deeper sensitivity to workplace values, enhance the need to set priorities and resolve conflicts, and broaden their need to have ethical standards at work.

Accessibility

Concerning accessibility, Bharath’s (2021) idea of equity is one of the most appropriate principles. In practice, what would be most feasible is for students to watch the film in their classroom. One is not asserting that a different approach is not possible, given that scholars in Africa, such as Maroun and Joosub (2012) successfully incorporated film in their module, with as high as 73% of their students watching the chosen movie at home and 69% completing the assignment. More so, O'Boyle and Sandonà (2013) highlighted the benefits of watching films and summarizing the key points before class. However, they also acknowledged that other scholars had included the watch time in the seminar sessions to offer all students an equal opportunity to view the chosen film. Indeed, an in-class strategy could hamper the pre-class preparation that O'Boyle and Sandonà (2013) found to be engaging, but that seems to be a good starting point or suitable strategy to promote accessibility and equity in the Nigerian setting.

Notwithstanding, should an out-of-class option be considered, lecturers or universities can consider some movies on free platforms such as YouTube. However, issues of internet access may arise, and Wi-Fi can be offered by the institutions, or students could be responsible for the same. For example, the students could also work in groups and collaborate in financing or purchasing mobile data or internet facilities as may be required. However, in class, the educator’s facilitated technique will be useful to avoid groupthink, and via questioning, and dialogue, co-created knowledge can be shared, and students can learn from the perspective of their peers (Bharath, 2021).

In the African context, particularly in Nigeria, as a case study, where most assessment methods are exam-based, the use of film would serve as a strategic and engaging way to ease into more in-depth analysis and discussion of issues and crucial phenomena such as ethics and leadership. The discursive method is also particularly innovative (O'Boyle & Sandonà, 2013) for the African educational system, where most modules are assessed via examination which is unidimensional. Hence, an analysis of the film with a reflective component is advised for students to bring to bear their perception of ethical issues and how the current knowledge has enabled them to advance in ethical thought and practice. In this regard, it seems designing the module like Sprau and Keig (2001) who engaged their students using Kolb’s learning process to further reflection is highly recommended.

Choice of Film

As already noted, filmmakers produce films for an audience beyond the classroom. Consequently, the approach for selecting an appropriate film suited to a module should be carefully considered. The selection could be dependent on the scope of the module. For example, documentaries can be used for covering expositional information or fictional movies can be chosen for communicating an overall story (Chang, 2020). Importantly, the chosen film or documentary should be captivating or engaging enough not to be considered boring (Bharath, 2021). For such purposes, Fluitt-Dupuy’s recommendations are noteworthy. Hence, educators can consider using films with well-developed characters, strong storylines, and star power (Fluitt-Dupuy, 2001). Instead of the movies that may glamorise violence, crime or societal vices, instructors could select movies from Nollywood channels that feature morally laden, leadership-relevant themes.

According to Bharath (2021), the instructor or students or both can engage in the selection of a film, which is appropriate to the subject matter, and relevant to the student's skill, level and current issues. Arguably, however, one can contend that it behooves the educator to make the final decision because selecting a good film requires a time commitment to ensure that relevant themes, perceptions, and details students are required to explore are identified (Fluitt-Dupuy, 2001). This also means it is important for educators to choose a film of interest that meets the required educational needs. Making this choice may be daunting, especially with issues of availability in rural areas, yet it is worth it, particularly when reflective activities and active experimentation are incorporated to give every student a quarter of a chance to shine through (Sprau & Keig, 2001).

Nonetheless, since viewers, especially those from a different culture, respond to film differently (Chang, 2020), it seems showcasing a film that better depicts issues as relevant to the culture or context is important. To advance this discourse, therefore, more educators can explore using film to educate business students on different but appropriate business and management subjects that can be deduced from the film. One can appreciate Tadesse’s (2016) sentiments about how African movies are moving away from the initial moralistic and didactic approach to a more entertainment and comedy-oriented approach. However, there are several new movies with elements that are study worthy. Besides, Tadesse’s (2016) paper presents several examples of films from Ethiopian cinema that are worth exploring, given their pertinent themes that focus on enlightening young and experienced minds alike.

Other good films are proposed by studies including Campbell’s (2022) choice which exposes viewers to the wealth/poverty divide in South Africa, Alola and Alola’s (2020) review of gender stereotypes in Nigerian films, Page’s (2014) study that captures the legacy of colonial community development using film, Uwah’s (2011) examples of popular film depicting Nigeria’s cultures and religion. While stereotypical views of African films, particularly Nollywood movies, tend to focus on the juju/witch and traditional genres, which is much like the horror movies in the west, Nollywood movies equally have informative and didactic content. Examples of movies or films that have been explored for learning purposes are Black November (Lucas et al., 2020), My Better World (M2Presswire, 2022) and Prof Johnbull (GloTV, 2018) which is particularly a didactic series depicting social issues and their ethical implications. It is imperative, therefore, that the appropriate film is selected for educational purposes.

3.1.4. Students and Experiential Learning

Generally, film can be used for reflective practice (Ayikoru & Park, 2019) to offer students experiential learning combined with cognitive (Desai et al., 2018) and emotional engagement (Ayikoru & Park, 2019). Experiential learning theory enhances student’ learning via student-involved activities. That is, it can enable students to engage in the learning process such that they can operationalise concepts in a business environment (Brown, 2023). This is important because businesses are very practical and want candidates who can translate concepts into profitable business outcomes. Although self-reflection is a suggested element in the third phase (reproduction) of social learning theory (Bandura, 1977), it does not emphasize how reflection can support experiential learning. Social learning theory does support the observation of role models as examples to emulate (O’Rorke, 2003), which in this case will be the film characters.

However, students need their facilitators in the learning process, especially to promote experiential learning and get answers to relevant questions. This is because the observed supposedly knows that they are being watched, but there is no direct and personal relationship between the dyad. Besides, reflective practice is important in experiential learning since it enables students to identify their knowledge deficiencies (Kleinheksel et al., 2023). Hence, reflection to further promote experiential learning for students is required and could be advanced by the incorporation of reflective activities and the use of relevant models. Kleinheksel et al. (2023) use of Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning is insightful since the model enables one to encounter, refine, integrate and adapt new knowledge. Based on Kolb’s cycle, the aim is to also guide learners from the concrete experience (feeling) of watching the film to reflective observation, and unto the third stage of abstract conceptualisation and final active experimentation (Kleinheksel et al., 2023; Taneja et al., 2023).

In practice, educators need to facilitate discussions and activities that will engage learners in a way that they can reflect on what had been watched and be able to refine and find ways to effectively apply the knowledge in new settings. For example, educators can start by using a film that can offer students new concepts or insights. Thereafter, students can be given time to reflect on what they have observed as required in the second reflective observation phase (Taneja et al., 2023). Educators need to build a safe environment for the learners to facilitate trust (Brown, 2023) and communicate their new ideas. This can lead to abstract conceptualisation as their reflection leads to new ideas or the modification of existing experiences. The learning cycle continues as learners go on to actively experiment or apply their acquired knowledge to the world around them, which can have several positive outcomes (Kleinheksel et al., 2023).

4. Recommendations

4.1. Example of Film Used in Class

The use of film is strongly recommended for higher education business schools, especially because it has been used in other top-ranking institutions and the author has also had a first-hand experience, albeit in a different context/setting. This experience is worth explaining as it informs the recommended choice of subjects that could be explored in Nigeria. Campbell’s (2022) reflective practice is quite informative about how lecturers with an autoethnographic paradigm could draw from their experience to discuss relevant themes that have wide-reaching implications. The author, as an educator in a UK business school, has also used film for different educational purposes including teaching and research output. A relevant anecdotal example is the use of film in the delivery of an ethics and leadership module for final-year undergraduate students at a reputable UK university. Like Edwards et al. (2015), they used an iterative process for in-class viewing and discussion of the chosen film; Arbitrage (Jarecki et al., 2012).

The film centred around the main character (Robert Miller) who had made wrong financial and moral decisions that escalated into potential issues of bankruptcy, adultery, and manslaughter, but it ended with him unscathed. Before the film analysis, students were taught normative ethical theories and one of the authors facilitated the seminar sessions where over 100 min of the film was viewed over four to five weeks for two different seminar groups of about 30 students per group. The aim of watching the movie in parts was to allow time for discussion of the relevant themes underpinned by the studied ethical theory. After viewing, students were put into smaller teams and given time to discuss the wrongness or rightness of the actions captured in the observed scenes based on at least one of the ethical theories.

Students who judged his actions from a virtue ethics perspective, which is based more on the character of the agent (Beauchamp & Bowie, 2001), supposed that he was just being human, while others called him out for his deception, adultery, and lies. After he completed the transaction that salvaged his company and employees’ jobs, some students described him as a driven and charismatic leader while others questioned his narcissism as a dark side of abusive leadership (Gauglitz et al., 2022). Other students arguing from a consequential or utilitarian ethical perspective noted that regardless of the method, the outcome was for the common good (Shah et al., 2022). While others questioned Robert’s method, arguing that from a deontological stance based on Kant’s categorical imperative, moral agents are required to dutifully adhere to generally accepted principles (Andow, 2023) in conducting their affairs or business. Overall, with the tutor’s guidance, the students were able to discuss both ethical and leadership theories with examples from the film.

Based on students’ feedback, the exercises were engaging and useful; though some claimed that before the session, they had never imagined that film could be as resourceful in the classroom. Their reasoning is not farfetched since movies are originally intended to entertain (Bharath, 2021; Islam, 2009). Nevertheless, there are a variety of movies that are focused on a theme and directly applicable to a particular subject of study. For example, Diaz Vidal et al. (2020) with the aid of appealing and entertaining films were able to discuss the nature of economic education drawing on the connection with how films are produced. Hence, there is a strong case for advocating an advancement in the use of film in business schools as an andragogical tool for adult learning.

4.2 Recommended Subjects to Explore

Film supports a connection between experiential learning and emotional engagement (Ayikoru & Park, 2019) and exceeds the inadequacies of a text-driven medium, which is insufficient for empathy and emotion-driven concepts (Chang, 2020). This makes it an excellent learning tool for subjects such as ethics and leadership which are somewhat emotive concepts. Besides, given the current challenges of bad leadership and corruption in Africa, this study builds on Liedong's (2017) and Mishra and Maiko’s (2017) work tended towards more ethics-driven leadership paradigms. Hence, potential subjects worth exploring in African business schools using film are ethics and leadership. According to George (2000), emotions are crucial for the promotion of effective leadership given that leaders with high emotional intelligence will be better at instilling a sense of appreciation for employees’ work, establishing collective goals and meaningful organizational identity. Since film depicts behaviours that are prosocial or unacceptable (Desai et al., 2018), it can play a role in the discussion of ethics where dramatized unethical behaviours can be identified by learners.

Ethics

Most institutions in Africa already have ethics as part of their curriculum (Liedong, 2017), which is a good step towards combatting corruption. Although Damoah and Appiah (2019) stated that they found no correlation between their ethical module and students’ ethical behaviour, they still acknowledged that such is not always the case. Regardless, their result is intriguing, and the outcome could also be due to the delivery method. Business schools are noted for teaching cognitive modelling and instrumental techniques instead of educational engagement relevant to supporting the adoption of an ethical perspective (Case et al., 2011). Mishra and Maiko's (2017) admission that African business schools cannot continue to train business students in the same way and expect different results is highly acceptable. However, they did not include film in their list of learning techniques which is not surprising given that film is in its nascent stage as a learning tool in African business schools.

Didactic films are useful for teaching ethics. They depict issues that require a resolution, be they moral, legal or cultural issues based on an individual or a group. These kinds of conflict or moral problems and dilemmas can offer students avenues for discussing ethics/morality. The underpinning theoretical framework, social learning theory, is also useful in the study of ethics and leadership. According to Bandura (1977), an individual’s moral judgement governs their conduct based on their environment or social conditions. This means the right moral reasoning orientation could be instructive in determining the actual moral or immoral behaviours of students, so there is a place for moral education.

In practice, perhaps, the first place to start is the re-orientation of students and the implementation of an ethics-driven system that could nudge them to take ethical decisions such as actively discouraging and reporting examination malpractices of any form. Additionally, student representatives and leaders should be chosen based on merit, especially those who are driven to serve first (Greenleaf, 1977) or have a high motivation to serve (Ukeni, 2021). This is important because when the right behaviours are rewarded, they are more likely to be reproduced by observers (Bandura, 1977). To echo Zoogah and Abugre’s (2020) call, students should be encouraged to harness restorative values. Based on the tenets of restorative followership, followers can be encouraged to behave in ways that restore diminished values via fairness, relationship repair and closure (Zoogah & Abugre, 2020). This could then be transferred to organisations.

However, one can also agree with Liedong (2017) that most organizations, especially those that prioritize profit (Groom, 2011) barely choose candidates based on their ethical position. This means businesses can also help by considering the moral development or ethical position of their recruits. For the classes, given that there are no one-size-fit-all rules to adopt, the use of all three normative theories (virtue ethics, consequential and deontological ethics) for such truth and value claims (Brandt, 1959; Reynolds and Ceranic, 2007) is also a welcome approach to capture a rounded view of the dilemma or moral issues in a film. O'Boyle and Sandonà's (2013) six-stage process may also be useful in equipping students to identify and resolve ethical issues.

Leadership

As Warner (2007) rightly noted, film can be the virtual laboratory for the examination and interpretation of the varying approaches to the leaders-follower relationship. Essentially, the point is that film is resourceful in the discussion of leadership as a phenomenon that undergirds human interaction. For instance, Warner (2007) comprehensively captured the leader-follower relationship via the use of Shakespeare’s work as depicted by Branagh’s film, Henry V. Following his examination, the film supported the discussion of a follower enhancing leadership which could be compromised by moral short-sightedness. Warner (2007) also added to the budding knowledge of leadership as depicted in the art by facilitating an interdisciplinary integration of humanities and leadership studies which is still requiring further development. Bartlett and colleagues (2020) in their evaluation of the Robin Hood character demonstrated how the film is suited to exploring leadership issues. Their result also highlighted noteworthy behaviours and leadership traits that the cultural legend portrayed as adapted to contemporary viewers.

Given the plethora of leadership theories, educators should be deliberate in choosing a theory, particularly as required for the students’ level. However, given the issues of corruption (Liedong, 2017; Mishra & Maiko, 2017; Transparency International, 2021) and toxic leadership in Africa, owing to selfish or narcissistic and power-driven behaviours of leaders (Zoogah & Abugre, 2020), a service and ethics-based approach to leadership (Greenleaf, 1977) is highly recommended. That is, servant leadership theory which emphasizes the use of moral means for justifiable ends by the moral agent and focuses on the needs of the followers or employees and relevant stakeholders (Ukeni, 2021) could be explored to enable students to become more altruistic (Lanctot & Irving, 2010; Patterson, 2003) than corrupt. Besides, its tenets are opposed to those of corruption and its outcomes, including ineffective leadership that adversely impacts followers’ performance (Evans et al., 2021). Whilst the service orientation challenges the domineering view of leadership, the term could be challenging to the African people (Agulanna, 2006), so could be pitched as the leaders’ attitude of care or taking responsibility to avoid a misinterpretation as slavery (Kretzschmar, 2002).

5. Conclusion

This article covers the use of film as an andragogical tool for educating higher education students in business schools in Africa. Based on secondary data and a qualitative methodology, relevant themes that support the attainment of the three research objectives were discussed. Themes used to make a case for using film include its practical relevance, components, usage, benefits, and impact. The study makes some useful contributions by highlighting the limited use of film in business schools in Africa and offering prospects or ways in which the challenges of incorporating film, including accessibility issues, choice of film and gap in knowledge could be managed or mitigated. Furthermore, the paper proposes the use of reflective activities to accompany observational learning underpinned by social learning theory to promote experiential learning for students, to the end that they will have increased opportunities to evaluate situations practically and apply their acquired knowledge. Facilitators also have a role to play in designing such reflective activities, particularly incorporating Kolb’s learning or reflective cycle. An anecdotal example of how film was used in a leadership and ethics study was provided and relevant recommendations were discussed. A significant limitation of the current study is its over reliance on secondary data. Yet the overview has captured the required themes covering the trends, challenges, and prospects of using film in Africa. Future studies can consider conducting primary research to explore how film is best used in African business schools for ethics and leadership studies and its impact on students should be examined.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Ijeoma G. Ukeni

Dr Ijeoma G. Ukeni is a lecturer at the Huddersfield Business School and member of the European International Business Academy. An expert in ethics and servant leadership studies, her research interests include leadership, moral philosophy, and HRM, especially as they impact human reasoning and behaviour. As a fellow of Advanced Higher Education, Ijeoma has a keen interest in pedagogy/andragogy and general learning and development. She is equally interested in replicating western best practices in Africa since knowledge and service are neither racially nor geographically biased.