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Abstract
While the spiritual landscape in Timor-Leste has been widely acknowledged and documented, its security dimensions remain relatively unexplored and under-theorised. This article argues that there are many different dimensions of security, and that a more holistic acknowledgement of the beliefs and practices which constitute a prominent basis for the ways that people engage with and understand the world is required. Building on qualitative fieldwork conducted in 2016, this article examines how, in Timor-Leste, engagement with the spiritual landscape informs to a significant extent how people experience, understand and produce security, in ways that state-based security provision often cannot.
Acknowledgements
I am extremely grateful to my supervisor for his ongoing mentoring, collegial support and constructive feedback. I would also like to acknowledge the involvement of my local research colleague who has provided such invaluable insight and perspective, in addition to the many people who took the time to share their ideas and experiences with me while in Timor-Leste, either in interviews or through daily interactions and conversations. Thanks also to colleagues at the Timor-Leste Research Program within RMIT University’s Centre for Global Research (CGR) in Melbourne, Australia.
Notes
1. In addition to providing translation support, this person acted as a cultural broker and was an important link into the community. Her participation in interviews also made for a more relaxed, conversational-style of interviewing and post-interview debriefs and other time spent working together provided invaluable reflective discussions and sharing of different perspectives.
2. A Tetum term used to refer to the owners or custodians of a particular geographical feature, such as a banyan tree, river, waterfall, caves, mountains etc.
3. Male Respondent, mid-30s, Ritual Leader and former Village Chief. Irabin De Cima, Viqueque (16 May 2016).
4. Portuguese acronym for Forças Armadas da Libertação Nacional de Timor-Leste.
5. Portuguese acronym for Frente Revolucionária de Timor-Leste Independente.
6. The Clandestine network was an integral part of the resistance movement. Civilian-led and organised, it providing important sources of strategic support, logistics and information for guerrilla activity.
7. Scambary, “Conflict and Resilience in an Urban Squatter.”
8. While these two villages are now officially recognised as separate administrative regions, most of the community members still referred to their home as ‘Irabere’ and of both villages consisting of the same extended family remaining connected from many generations ago through inter-marriage. Furthermore, the name of the main lulik site in the region was called Mota Irabere (Irabere River).
9. Buzan and Hansen, “Widening and Deepening Security.”
10. Barkawi and Laffey, “The Postcolonial Moment in Security Studies,” 330.
11. Seth, “Historical Sociology and Postcolonial Theory,” 336.
12. Ibid.
13. Lemanski, “Everyday Human (In)security: Rescaling for the Southern City.”
14. Bilgin, “The “Western-centrism” of Security Studies,” 615.
15. Trindade, “Lulik: The Core of Timorese Values,” 16.
16. Bovensiepen, “Lulik: Taboo, Animism, or Transgressive Sacred,” 121, 122.
17. Hönke and Müller, “Governing (In)security in a Postcolonial World: Transnational Entanglements,” 392, 395.
18. In security studies, this term refers to an object, ideal or person that is at threat and/or requires securing and protection.
19. McWilliam, “Harbouring Traditions in East Timor,” 1123.
20. Bovensiepen, “Spiritual Landscapes of Life and Death,” 329.
21. Molnar, “An Anthropological Study of Atsabe Perceptions of Kolimau 2000”; and Myrttinen, “Phantom Menaces: The Politics of Rumour, Securitisation.”
22. Pannell, “Welcome to Hotel Tutuala: Fataluku Accounts,” 207.
23. Allerton, “Introduction: Spiritual Landscapes of Southeast Asia”; and Bovensiepen, “Spiritual Landscapes of Life and Death.”
24. Grenfell, “Modernising Timor-Leste: Moving Beyond Ideology,” 211.
25. Dewsbury and Cloke, “Spiritual Landscapes: Existence, Performance and Immanence,” 696.
26. Male Ritual Elder, Bebonuk, Comoro (29 February 2016).
27. This was described as a special type of Holy dust that people get from the church at Easter.
28. Female respondent, widowed. Active church participant. Irabin De Beixo, Viqueque (14 May 2016).
29. Allerton, “Introduction: Spiritual Landscapes of Southeast Asia,” 238.
30. Kehi and Palmer, “Hamatak Halirin: The Cosmological and Socio-Ecological Roles”; and Thu, “Access to Land and Livelihoods.”
31. Hicks, “Compatibility, Resilience and Adaptation”; and Niner, “Barlake: An Exploration of Marriage Practices and Issues.”
32. Cummins, “Democracy or Democrazy? Local experiences”; Grenfell, “Rethinking Governance and Security in Timor-Leste”; and Molnar, “‘Died in the Service of Portugal’: Legitimacy of Authority.”
33. Babo-Soares, “Nahe Biti: The Philosophy and Process of Grassroots Reconciliation”; and Trindade and Castro, Rethinking Timorese Identity as a Peacebuilding Strategy.
34. Female respondent, widowed. Aged 60s. Became an informal ritual elder after her husband passed away. Irabin de Beixo, Viqueque (12 May 2016).
35. Male respondent, mid-30s, director of social enterprise. Comoro, Dili (21 March 2016).
36. Male respondent, mid-60s, Village Chief. Irabin de Beixo, Viqueque (12 May 2016).
37. Male respondent, mid-50s, secondary school teacher, Irabin De Cima, Viqueque (15 May 2016).
38. This word refers to tree but also can be used when talking about one’s origin or source.
39. Male respondent, late 20s, spiritual healer. Comoro, Dili (11 April 2016).
40. Male respondent, late 20s, NGO staffer. Comoro, Dili (13 March 2016).
41. A customary practice that enforces a regulation or prohibition. Often conducted in the regulation of natural resources, and as a method of conflict resolution.
42. Male respondent, late 20s, NGO staffer. Comoro, Dili (13 March 2016).
43. Male Respondent, mid-30s, Ritual Leader and former Village Chief. Irabin De Cima, Viqueque (16 May 2016).
44. Male respondent, mid-50s, secondary school teacher, Irabin De Cima, Viqueque (15 May 2016).
45. Male respondent, mid-50s, secondary school teacher, Irabin De Cima, Viqueque (15 May 2016).
46. Male respondent, mid-50s, secondary school teacher, Irabin De Cima, Viqueque (15 May 2016).
47. Male respondent, mid-30s, director of social enterprise. Comoro, Dili (21 March 2016).
48. Male respondent, mid-30s, director of social enterprise. Comoro, Dili (21 March 2016).
49. Male Respondent, mid-30s, Ritual Leader and former Village Chief. Irabin De Cima, Viqueque (16 May 2016).
50. Bubandt, “Vernacular Security: The Politics of Feeling,” 275.
51. Grenfell and James, Rethinking Insecurity, War and Violence, 15.