E-waste management in China: bridging the formal and informal sectors

Abstract

The global production and demand of electronic appliances is exponentially growing, increasingly depleting natural resources. This is resulting in increasing amounts of electronic waste (e-waste), which is a challenge for resource management, as e-waste holds valuable resources that can be channeled back into the electronics production cycle. China, as one of the world’s main recipients of e-waste, is facing a twofold burden. Increasing amounts of e-waste are generated domestically, and there is a continuous flow of illegally imported e-waste. E-waste entering China from abroad is handled entirely by the informal recycling sector, which also covers most of nationally generated e-waste. Recycling practices in the informal sector are predominantly at primitive levels, not only posing serious harm to the environment and public health, but also resulting in inefficient resource recovery results. This paper analyzes the structure of the informal e-waste sector in China and challenges that impede the effective integration of the informal into the formal system. It also identifies good practices that may be applied to address these challenges and establish a sustainable e-waste management system in the country, which will allow China to recover valuable resources from e-waste and mitigate harm to the environment and human health.

Keywords:

• E-waste management
• informal sector
• integration
• environmental impact
• China

Notes

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes on contributor

Eva Ignatuschtschenko is a former Research Fellow at the Global Cyber Security Capacity Centre, University of Oxford. She has previously worked for the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), as a Cybercrime and Knowledge Management Consultant. Eva has studied Sinology and East Asian studies in Germany, China and Austria and has been focusing on interdisciplinary research.

Notes

1 Wei and Liu, ‘Present Status of E-waste Disposal,’ 507; Zhou and Xu, ‘Response to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipments in China,’ 4713.

2 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 11.

3 Schluep et al., Recycling – From E-waste to Resources, 49–51; Veenstra et al., ‘An Analysis of E-waste Flows in China,’ 450; Wang et al., E-waste in China, 12.

4 Wei and Liu, ‘Present Status of E-waste Disposal,’ 507; Wang et al., E-waste in China, 14–15.

5 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 14–15.

6 The concept of the ‘informal sector’ (also: ‘informal economy’) was introduced by the International Labour Organization in the 1970s and comprises workers and organizations whose activities are not legally regulated, taxed or monitored by the government. Even though activities in the informal sector may not be strictly legal, goods and services produced by the sector are legal, thereby distinguishing it from the illegal/criminal economy. For a discussion, see Bangasser, The ILO and the Informal Sector.

7 ISWA, Solid Waste: Guidelines for Successful Planning, 22.

8 Pariatamby and Victor, ‘Policy Trends of E-waste Management in Asia,’ 411–419.

9 Veenstra et al., ‘An Analysis of E-waste Flows in China,’ 449–459.

10 Hicks et al., ‘The Recycling and Disposal of Electrical and Electronic Waste in China,’ 459–471; Liu et al., ‘Electrical and Electronic Waste Management in China,’ 94–101; Pariatamby and Victor, ‘Policy Trends of E-waste Management in Asia,’ 411–419.

11 Hicks et al., ‘The Recycling and Disposal of Electrical and Electronic Waste in China,’ 459–471; Chung and Zhang, ‘An Evaluation of Legislative Measures on Electrical and Electronic Waste in the People’s Republic of China,’ 2638–2646.

12 Veenstra et al., ‘An Analysis of E-waste Flows in China,’ 449–459.

13 Brigden et al., Recycling of Electronic Wastes in China and India; Leung et al., ‘Heavy Metals Concentrations of Surface Dust,’ 2674–2680; Song and Li, ‘A Systematic Review of the Human Body Burden of E-waste Exposure in China,’ 2587–2594.

14 Liu et al., ‘Electrical and Electronic Waste Management in China,’ 94–101; Zhou and Xu, ‘Response to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipments in China,’ 4713–4724; Wang et al., E-waste in China; Lu et al., ‘An Overview of E-waste Management in China,’ 1–12.

15 Shinkuma and Managi, ‘On the Effectiveness of a License Scheme for E-waste Recycling,’ 262–267.

16 Bo and Yamamoto, ‘Characteristics of E-waste Recycling Systems in Japan and China,’ 500–506; Pariatamby and Victor, ‘Policy Trends of E-waste Management in Asia,’ 411–419; Shinkuma and Huong, ‘The Flow of E-waste Material in the Asian Region,’ 25–31.

17 Lundgren, The Global Impact of E-waste, 55.

18 Wang et al., ‘The Best-of-2-Worlds Philosophy,’ 2136–2145.

19 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 40–41.

20 Ibid., 41–42.

21 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 736–737.

22 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 42–43.

23 Ibid., 44–46.

24 Ibid., 43.

25 Wei and Liu, ‘Present Status of E-waste Disposal,’ 507; Baldé et al., The Global E-waste Monitor – 2014, 42; Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 735.

26 Ni and Zeng, ‘Law Enforcement and Global Collaboration,’ 3992; Lundgren, The Global Impact of E-waste, 15; Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 735; Puckett et al., Exporting Harm, 16–18.

27 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 735; Wei and Liu, ‘Present Status of E-waste Disposal,’ 507–508.

28 Wang et al., ‘Willingness and Behavior towards E-waste Recycling,’ 983–984.

29 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 736–737.

30 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 736; Hicks et al., ‘The Recycling and Disposal of Electrical and Electronic Waste in China,’ 463.

31 Wei and Liu, ‘Present Status of E-waste Disposal,’ 508; Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 736.

32 Zhou and Xu, ‘Response to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipments in China,’ 4717.

33 Hicks et al., ‘The Recycling and Disposal of Electrical and Electronic Waste in China,’ 460–461; Wang et al., E-waste in China, 22–24.

34 Hicks et al., ‘The Recycling and Disposal of Electrical and Electronic Waste in China,’ 460–461.

35 Song and Li, ‘Environmental Effects of Heavy Metals Derived from the E-waste Recycling Activities in China,’ 2590–2591.

36 Brigden et al., Recycling of Electronic Wastes in China and India, 4; Leung et al., ‘Heavy Metals Concentrations of Surface Dust,’ 2677.

37 Brigden et al., Recycling of Electronic Wastes in China and India, 4.

38 Fang et al., ‘PM10 and PM2.5 and Health Risk Assessment for Heavy Metals,’ 12475–12476; Zhu et al., ‘The Relationship between Magnetic Parameters and Heavy Metal Contents,’ 305–308.

39 Song and Li, ‘Environmental Effects of Heavy Metals Derived from the E-waste Recycling Activities in China,’ 2588–2590.

40 Ibid., 2591.

41 Wei and Liu, ‘Present Status of E-waste Disposal,’ 508–509.

42 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 23.

43 Song and Li, ‘A Systematic Review of the Human Body Burden of E-waste Exposure in China,’ 84–91; Lundgren, The Global Impact of E-waste, 19–20.

44 Wei and Liu, ‘Present Status of E-waste Disposal,’ 508–509; Leung et al., ‘Heavy Metals Concentrations of Surface Dust,’ 2679.

45 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 25–36; Baldé et al., The Global E-waste Monitor – 2014, 42.

46 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 736.

47 Li Hui, ‘Baidu Recycle App’.

48 Zhou and Xu, ‘Response to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipments in China,’ 4717–4718.

49 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 26; Zhou and Xu, ‘Response to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipments in China,’ 4718.

50 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 735–736.

51 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 26–27.

52 Kojima et al., ‘Difficulties in Applying Extended Producer Responsibility Policies in Developing Countries,’ 268.

53 Zhou and Xu, ‘Response to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipments in China,’ 4718; Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 736.

54 Zhou and Xu, ‘Response to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipments in China,’ 4718; Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 736; Wang et al., ‘Willingness and Behavior towards E-waste Recycling,’ 983–984.

55 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 735–737.

56 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 43; Yu et al., ‘Managing E-waste in China,’ 994.

57 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 736–737.

58 Zhang, ‘From Guiyu to a Nationwide Policy,’ 983–985; Yu et al., ‘Managing E-waste in China,’ 992–994.

59 Shinkuma and Huong, ‘The Flow of E-waste Material in the Asian Region,’ 30.

60 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 738.

61 Ibid., 740.

62 United Nations University and Step Initiative, ‘China’.

63 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 735.

64 Lu et al., ‘An Overview of E-waste Management in China,’ 9.

65 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 735–738.

66 Chung and Zhang, ‘An Evaluation of Legislative Measures on Electrical and Electronic Waste in the People’s Republic of China,’ 2642–2644; Zhou and Xu, ‘Response to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipments in China,’ 4714–4721; Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 735.

67 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 40–41.

68 Yu et al., ‘Managing E-waste in China,’ 996.

69 Examples include the China Household Electrical Appliances Association, the China Resources Recycling Association, the China Electronics Energy Saving Technology Association and the Executive Committee of Foreign Investment Companies.

70 Research relating to e-waste is conducted by Tsinghua University, the Chinese Academy of Science, the China National Electric Apparatus Research Institute and the Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, among others.

71 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 41–46.

72 Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 736–737.

73 Zhou and Xu, ‘Response to Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipments in China,’ 4718–4721.

74 Lu et al., ‘An Overview of E-waste Management in China,’ 9.

75 Wang et al., E-waste in China, 18.

76 He et al., ‘WEEE Recovery Strategies,’ 510; Chi et al., ‘Informal Electronic Waste Recycling,’ 736.

77 OECD, ‘How Does the Chinese E-waste Disposal Fund Scheme Work’.

78 Wang et al., ‘Willingness and Behavior towards E-waste Recycling,’ 978.

79 Hui, ‘Baidu Recycle App’.

80 Wang et al., ‘Willingness and Behavior towards E-waste Recycling,’ 978–983; Liu et al., ‘Electrical and Electronic Waste Management in China,’ 98; Wang et al., E-waste in China, 19–20.

81 Chi et al., ‘E-waste Collection Channels and Household Recycling Behaviors in Taizhou,’ 92–93.

82 Yu et al., ‘Managing E-waste in China,’ 994.

83 Lu et al., ‘An Overview of E-waste Management in China,’ 9–10.

84 Hart, ‘Informal Income Opportunities and Urban Employment in Ghana,’ 61–89; Tokman, ‘An Exploration into the Nature of Informal-Formal Sector Relationships,’ 1065–1075.

85 Yu et al., ‘Managing E-waste in China,’ 997–998.

86 Raghupathy et al., ‘E-waste Recycling in India,’ 6–9.

87 Niyati, ‘Role of Informal Sector in E-waste Recycling,’ 284–285.

88 Williams et al., ‘Linking Informal and Formal Electronics Recycling via an Interface Organization,’ 139–146.

89 ILO, Tackling Informality in E-waste Management, 23–59; Gutberlet, Urban Recycling Cooperatives, 39–89.

90 Wang et al., ‘The Best-of-2-Worlds Philosophy,’ 2136–2145.

91 Ibid., 2143–2145.

92 Ibid., 2142–2143.