http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7300-1173
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ABSTRACT
This report synthesizes all aspects of the taxonomy, distribution, history of introduction and spread, ecological constrains (including preferred climate, substratum and habitats), responses to biotic and abiotic factors, biology (including phenology, vegetative and reproductive biology), economic importance and human uses, ecological impacts, legislation and management of Carpobrotus N.E.Br. (Aizoaceae), a prominent invasive plant in Europe.
Carpobrotus species are mat-forming trailing succulent perennial herbs native from South Africa, introduced in Europe for ornamental and soil stabilization purposes since the beginning of the seventeenth century, now widely naturalized on coastal habitats of southern and western Europe. C. acinaciformis and C. edulis are the main species recognized outside South Africa, together with their hybrids and potential hybrid swarms. Identification conflicts both in the native and invaded areas raise doubts on the taxonomy of these taxa, but hybridization processes may boost adaptive changes in the invaded range.
The release of Carpobrotus in natural environments and protected areas is prohibited in several European countries, but this taxon is not included in the list of invasive species of Union concern. Carpobrotus is a pioneer of disturbed sites and coastal areas including cliffs and sand dune systems, due to its tolerance to stress factors such as salinity, drought and excess of light. Carpobrotus invasion ultimately affects patterns of native species diversity. Moreover, it has been recognized as a major driver of soil conditions shifts and soil geochemical processes disruptions, representing a serious threat for coastal habitats.
Management plans for Carpobrotus must consider its high plasticity for morphological and ecophysiological traits, which may probably explain its tolerance to a wide range of ecological conditions. Its flexible mating systems, which represent an optimal strategy to facilitate local adaptation and habitat colonization, include ability to produce apomictic seeds, self- and cross-pollination, and an intense vegetative clonality. In addition, Carpobrotus produces a large seed bank with a moderate short-term persistence, and fruits are effectively dispersed by mammals. The most efficient control methods are physical removal and herbicide application on leaves, whereas integration of biological control with other conventional management methods are likely to be most effective. A long-term monitoring of control actions and restoration of soil conditions are needed to prevent recovering from clonal parts, seed bank or mammal faeces as well as potential new invasions by other opportunistic species.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank two anonymous reviewers for useful suggestions and comments on a previous version of this manuscript.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes
1. Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats, Bern, 19.IX.1979Revathy.
2. Regulation (EU) No 1143/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2014 on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species.
4. HD = Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora.
Additional information
Funding
Notes on contributors
Josefina G. Campoy
Josefina G. Campoy is a plant ecologist with interests in plant invasions who is currently working in her PhD of Carpobrotus at the University of Santiago de Compostela. Contribution: She drafted some of the sections, contributing particularly to the description of the distribution in the invaded area. She also coordinated the team during the writing of the manuscript, provided additions and comments, and reviewed the final draft.
Alicia T. R. Acosta
Alicia T. R. Acosta is a plant ecologist at the Università degli Studi Roma TREE with a range of interests in community ecology but particularly concerned in understanding how sandy coastal ecosystems function, and how they will respond to ongoing environmental changes. Contribution: She contributed to the section of Negative impacts and reviewed the final draft.
Laurence Affre
Laurence Affre is a plant ecologist associate professor at the Aix Marseille University and IMBE (France). She conducts researches on population dynamics and structure of rare, common and invasive plants. Contribution: She contributed to the section Reproductive biology, and reviewed the final draft.
Rodolfo Barreiro
Rodolfo Barreiro is an ecologist at the University of A Coruña, with an interest in the use of molecular techniques to address issues in ecology. Contribution: He contributed to the section of the history of the introduction and spread and reviewed the final draft.
Giuseppe Brundu
Giuseppe Brundu is agronomist and botanist at the University Sassari, with interests in prevention, management and control of plant invasions. Contribution: He contributed to the section on Taxonomy and Legislation and reviewed the final draft.
Elise Buisson
Elise Buisson is an associate professor at Université d’Avignon et des Pays de Vaucluse and IMBE. She conducts research on plant communities, their functioning and vulnerability, and is interested in their organization, their resilience and their restoration. Contribution: She contributed to the sections of Reproductive Biology and Management and reviewed the final draft.
Luís González
Luís González is a plant physiology professor at the Faculty of Biology of the University of Vigo, Spain. He is interested in invasive plants ecophysiology, native/invasive relationship, mainly in protected areas. Contribution: He contributed to the sections Ecological constrains, climate and substratum and Responses to abiotic factors (salinity and nutrients availability) and reviewed the final draft.
Margarita Lema
Margarita Lema is a plant breeder and geneticist involved in biological control studies at the University of Santiago de Compostela. Contribution: She contributed to the sections of biotic factors, control cost and biological control and reviewed the final draft.
Ana Novoa
Ana Novoa is a Scientist at the Department of Invasion Ecology of the Institute of Botany of the Czech Academy of Sciences, with interests in the ecology and management of invasive plants globally and in the engagement of stakeholders in the management of invasive species. Contribution: She contributed to the sections of habitats and syntaxonomy in the native range, the economic importance and human uses, and the chemical and physical control, and reviewed the final draft.
Rubén Retuerto
Rubén Retuerto is a full Professor of Ecology in the Department of Functional Biology at the University of Santiago de Compostela, with interests in understanding how plants interact with their physical, chemical and biotic environments to determine plant performance. Contribution: He contributed to the section of abiotic factors (light, water and temperature), and reviewed the final draft.
Sergio R. Roiloa
Sergio R. Roiloa is an Assistant Professor of Ecology at the University of A Coruña, with interests in clonal plant ecology and biological invasions. Contribution: He contributed to the section of phenology and vegetative growth and reviewed the final draft.
Jaime Fagúndez
Jaime Fagúndez is a botanist and plant ecologist at the University of A Coruña, with interests in semi-natural habitats and species’ management. Contribution: He conceived the study, contributed to the sections of identification conflicts and habitats and syntaxonomy in the invaded range, and reviewed the final draft. He also coordinated the team during the writing of the manuscript.