Morphogenesis of fruits and types of fruit of angiosperms

ABSTRACT

Morphological and anatomical fruit characters are used for description of morphogenetic fruit types within eight traditional fruit types – follicle, nutlet, drupe, berry, capsule, pyrenarium, amphisarca and nut, which describe the major diversity of fruits of all angiosperms. The traditional fruit types are representing levels of fruits organization and are described based on morphological characters (gynoecium type, carpels phyllotaxis, fruiting carpel dehiscence or indehiscence, number of seeds per fruit, and the presence or absence of the continuous sclerenchymatous zone in the fruit wall), whereas morphogenetic fruit types are described based on fruit wall (pericarp) anatomy. Fundamental differences between basal types of pericarp structure of the outlined morphogenetic fruit types lie in the localization (in the exocarp, specific zone of the mesocarp and/or endocarp) of the continuous sclerenchymatous zone, which secures protection of seeds, fruit dehiscence in follicles and capsules, and dissemination. Twenty seven morphogenetic fruit types are recognized in the current research: four types of follicle (Hakea, Illicium, Myristica and Talauma types), two types of nutlet (Nelumbo and Rosa types), three types of drupe (Laurus, Prunus and Rhapis types), two types of berrie (Schisandra and Nuphar types), seven types of capsule (Bombax, Eriocoelum, Forsythia, Galanthus, Hamamelis, Lilium and Nepenthes types), four types of pyrenarium (Butia, Ilex, Latania and Olea types), two types of amphisarca (Adansonia and Theobroma types), and three types of nut (Corylus, Polygonum and Centaurea types) in angiosperms. The modes of evolutionary transformations of main morphogenetic types of fruits are described.

KEYWORDS:

• Anatomy
• morphology
• fruit structure
• pericarp histology
• morphogenetic fruit types
• the modes of fruit evolution
• fruit character states

Acknowledgments

We thank E.S. Chavchavadse, N. B. Serafimovich, A. N. Sennikov, J. Dransfield, B. J. Baker, P. J. Rudall, M. Pignal, J. N. Labat and C. Loup, W. Crepet, G. N. Karpun, P. K. Endress, A. T. Leiva Sanchez, R. Rankin Rodríguez, A. Palmarola Bejerano, L. Perez Montesino, P. Oriol Rodríguez, L. Wenbo, K. Wang, L. Zhang, G.-L. Jiao, L. Noblick, P. Griffith, J. Kay, B. Tomlinson, J. B. Fisher, C. Jones, C.P. Dunn, R. F. Baker, D. H. Lorence, B. Millan, C. Martel, F. Stauffer, S. Goodwin, A. Bolin, A. Lindstrom, R. Figlar. The authors are greateful to J. Dransfield, A. Sukhorukov and anonymous reviewers for valuable comments on the manuscript and to A.V. Kudrjavtseva for preparing the schematic flower illustration (Figures 2–4). The work was carried out by A.V.F.Ch. Bobrov in accordance to M.V. Lomonosov Moscow State University theme “The geographical legitimacy of origin of the biodiversity” and by M.S. Romanov in accordance to Institutional research project № 118021490111-5 at the Unique Scientific Installation Fund Greenhouse.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Supplementary material

Supplementary data can be accessed here.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Alexey V. F. Ch. Bobrov

Alexey V. F. Ch. Bobrov, Dr. Sci. is Professor at Biogeography Department of Geographical Faculty of Lomonosov Moscow State Univercity and Professor of Russian Academy of Sciences. His research interests are phylogenetic system, evolution and systematic, comparative morphology of higher plants, carpology and reproductive biology of flowering plants.

Mikhail S. Romanov

Mikhail S. Romanov, PhD, is Leading Scientific Researcher at N. V. Tcitcin Main Botanical Garden of Russian Academy of Sciences. His research interests are reproductive biology of angiosperms, fruits structure, fruit development, and fruit functioning and their evolution particularly in early angiosperms and palms.

Contributions: The contribution (field and lab research, manuscript preparation) of both authors is equal, it is 50% for A. V. F. Ch. Bobrov and 50% for M.S. Romanov.