Building Internet policy on history: lessons of the forgotten 1981 network neutrality debate

ABSTRACT

The US-centric Internet history situates the start of the net neutrality debate around 2003, but a look at global Internet histories indicates otherwise. To wit: this case study of the forgotten net neutrality struggle that took place in France between 1979 and 1982. In 1978, the French PTT started “Minitel,” the world's first successful mass market online ecosystem. The Minitel experience prefigured most of the legal, economic, industrial, and other public policy issues we face today in cyberspace. The concept of network neutrality was explicitly debated by administrators and regulators – only to be rejected upon pressure from the incumbent print press industry, which foresaw its own impending demise and did all it could to hinder the development of open and neutral digital fora. Minitel has been derided by many scholars and policy wonks as the epitome of statism that precluded real and meaningful innovation from emerging from the edges. This article demonstrates instead that hindrances to net neutrality in France in the early 1980s were the result of private sector lobbying, not of PTT administrators. It provides a counter-narrative grounded in historical data, to fuel further thinking about what policies will better support private innovation over modern online platforms.

KEYWORDS:

• Net neutrality
• Minitel
• France
• Internet policy

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1. See e.g. Recode, “Net neutrality won. Here's the essay that started it all: Tim Wu first articulated the concept 14 years ago,” Recode, 14 June 2016: “Despite the decade-long debate, the concept was only articulated 14 years ago by an associate professor at the University of Virginia Law School named Tim Wu. The one-time politician is now a noted author and a professor at Columbia Law School, but he is more significantly the father of net neutrality”. https://www.recode.net/2016/6/14/11936484/net-neutrality-essay-tim-wu (last visited September 5, 2017).

2. Tim Wu, interview, Colbert Report, 23 January 2014: Colbert: “it's a stupid name, right, net neutrality?”; Wu: “no, it's a great name!”; Colbert: “Who came up with that name?”; Wu: “I did” [laughter].

3. To be clear: Tim Wu claims to have coined the term “net neutrality” but not the concept of common carriage from which it descends. But as he also suggests that net neutrality is “the application of the idea of common carriage with a twenty-first century industry” (Wu, 2010, p. 311), it's important to point out that “neutrality” did not originate in the twenty-first century either: neutrality of computer networks was being debated in France over twenty years before Wu's paper.

4. Note that this article and its author embrace the wide variety of perspectives and local and regional experiences represented in this journal – but because Internet history (note the singular) has traditionally been so US-centric, perhaps the lessons presented herewith should be of particular importance to a US audience.

5. Note that both BTX and Prestel opened up after 1982 to allow outside hosts to connect (Mayntz & Schneider, 1988).

6. There was one exception, the electronic phone book, which, logically, was operated by the PTT (see generally Marti, 2011).

7. On the industrial and international politics behind this choice, see generally Mailland and Driscoll (2017) and Nora and Minc (1978).

8. This expression appears in Nicole Le Guennec, “Une Liberté Totale,” undated magazine article circa 1986, available in archive: Orange/Direction de la Gestion et de la Conservation de l'Information, FONDS DOCUMENTAIRE ORANGE, Boîte 345 – La télématique, Revues de presse sur les réseaux et outils télématiques de Septembre 1979 à Décembre 1989.

9. Pierre Huet, Letter to Telecommunications Minister M. Mexandeau, 26 June 1981.

10. In fact, in the United States, the FCC was only able to impose net neutrality rules to the ISPs because it had first classified them as common carriers (FCC, 2015) – See also Barbara Cherry & Julien Mailland, Reply Comments of Professor Barbara A. Cherry & Assistant Professor Julien Mailland, Before the Federal Communications Commission Washington, D.C. 20554, Re: In the Matter of Protecting and Promoting the Open Internet, GN Docket No. 14-28; Framework for Broadband Internet Service, GN Docket No. 10-27; Preserving the Open Internet, GN Docket No. 09-191; Broadband Industry Practices, WC Docket no. 07-52 (September 2013); Barbara Cherry, Julien Mailland & Matt Pierce, Reply Comments of Cherry, Mailland and Pierce in Notice of Proposed Rulemaking, In the Matter of Restoring Internet Freedom, WC Docket No. 17-108, FCC 17-60 (August 2017).

11. F. Froment Meurice, “Principes Généraux Applicables au Videotex: Premiers Eléments,” Premier Ministre: Secrétariat Général du Gouvernment, 30 June 1980.

12. Id. Underline in original, italics added. Translation by the author.

13. Service Juridique & Technique de l'Information, «Note à l'Attention de M. Cousin,» 9 December 1980; Service Juridique & Technique de l'Information, «Note sur la Télématique et les Droits d'Auteur,» 10 December 1980; Service Juridique & Technique de l'Information, «Note sur le Cadre Juridique Applicable à la Télématique,» 10 December 1980.

14. Service Juridique & Technique de l'Information, «Exposé de M. Bertrand Cousin devant la Commission des Affaires Culturelles de l'Assemblée Nationale le 11 Décembre 1980 sur: Les Aspects Juridiques des Nouveaux Services du Video-Texte,» 11 December 1980.

15. Service Juridique & Technique de l'Information, «Exposé de M. Bertrand Cousin devant la Commission des Affaires Culturelles de l'Assemblée Nationale le 11 Décembre 1980 sur: Les Aspects Juridiques des Nouveaux Services du Video-Texte,» 11 December 1980.

16. Service Juridique & Technique de l'Information, «Exposé de M. Bertrand Cousin devant la Commission des Affaires Culturelles de l'Assemblée Nationale le 11 Décembre 1980 sur: Les Aspects Juridiques des Nouveaux Services du Video-Texte,» 11 December 1980.

17. J.Y. Plouvin, “Aspects Juridiques des Nouveaux Services du Video-Texte,” Ministère de la Communication: Service Juridique & Technique de l'Information, 5 March 1981.

18. One rationale behind this position was to avoid liability in the event illegal content might be distributed through the network. Nicole Le Guennec, “Une Liberté Totale,” undated magazine article circa 1986, available in archive: Orange/Direction de la Gestion et de la Conservation de l'Information, FONDS DOCUMENTAIRE ORANGE, Boîte 345 – La télématique, Revues de presse sur les réseaux et outils télématiques de Septembre 1979 à Décembre 1989. See also Maury (2011, 2012).

19. «La Télématique et le Syndicat National de la Presse Hebdomadaire Régionale d'Information,» Correspondance de la Presse, 5 August 1981.

20. «‘Les Echos’ Détiendront 31% d'une Société de Commercialisation des Produits Télématiques Français Prochainement Constituée aux Etats-Unis,» Correspondance de la Presse, 15 July 1981; «Création d'une société de promotion pour Antiope et Teletel aux Etats-Unis,» Cote Desfossés, 17 July 1981.

21. «A l'Ouest-France, Rien de Nouveau,» Libération, 28 June 1981.

22. «A l'Ouest-France, Rien de Nouveau,» Libération, 28 June 1981.

23. «La ‘révolution de la télématique,» Le Monde, 13 September 1979.

24. «Les rotatives en sursis,» Le Nouvel Observateur, 14 January 1980, cited in Schafer and Thierry (2012, p. 120).

25. La Montagne, 1 October 1980, cited in Schafer and Thierry (2012, pp. 123–124).

26. SNPQR, “Contribution du SNPQR au Rapport de la Commission du Suivi Télématique: Les Expériences et leur Suivi,” 18 October 1982 ; discussed in Mailland and Driscoll (2017, p. 64).

27. «Annuaire Electronique,» Ouest-France, 31 July 1981.

28. «L'annuaire électronique sous vide juridique,» Ouest-France, 17 July 1981.

29. «Vers une information ‘encadrée’?,» Ouest-France, 20 March 1980, reproduced in Marti (2011, p. 23).

30. Déclaration Universelle des Droits de l'Homme et du Citoyen, 1789, art 11.

31. “L'annuaire Electronique,” Ouest-France, 5 August 1980, reproduced in Marti (2011, p. 30).

32. “Teletel,” Télé 7 jours, May 19/25, 1979.

33. “Transmission ou Communication?,” Ouest-France, 5 August 1979, reproduced in Marti (2011, pp. 16–17).

34. “L'annuaire Electronique,” Ouest-France, 5 August 1980, reproduced in Marti (2011, p. 30).

35. “Telematique, le pluralism de l'information en jeu,” Ouest-France, 1 October 1980, cited in Schafer and Thierry (2012, p. 123).

36. P.Z and J-P.C., “Des espoirs mais une crainte,” Unknown newspaper, circa 1980 or 1981, available in archive: Orange/Direction de la Gestion et de la Conservation de l'Information, FONDS DOCUMENTAIRE ORANGE, Boîte 345 – La télématique, Revues de presse sur les réseaux et outils télématiques de Septembre 1979 à Décembre 1989.

37. MM. Puhl & Bujon, Fédération Nationale de la Presse Française, Letter to PTT Minister Norbert Ségard, circa May 1980, reproduced in «La position officielle des organismes professionnels de la presse face à la télématique,» EPP, 12 May 1980.

38. “La Télématique en Conseil des Ministres,” Les Echos, 13 March 1985.

39. “Teletel Gelé par L. Mexandeau,” Libération, 15 June 1981. Ironically, Libération is itself a left-leaning paper.

40. “Le développement de la télématique sera poursuivi, confirme M. Mexandeau,» AFP, 14 June 1981; “Le développement de la télématique sera poursuivi, confirme M. Mexandeau,» Cote Desfossés, 26 June 1981.

41. “Telematique: Coup d'envoi pour Teletel,” Ouest france, 10 July 1981.

42. “M. Mexandeau rassure les industriel et le clients,» La voix du nord, 10 July 1981.

43. “Des milliards pour un gadget,” Le Canard Enchaîné, 5 August 1981.

44. Reported in «La Télématique,» Correspondance de la Presse, 17 July 1981.

45. Reported in «La Télématique,» Correspondance de la Presse, 17 July 1981.

46. Code Général des Impôts, Ann. III, articles 72 and 73.

47. Tribunal Administratif the Paris, 6 June 1990, discussed in Pierre Huet, “Cadre juridique de l'audiotex en France et dans le monde,” Droit de l'Informatique et des Télécoms 3 (1994): 57–62, p. 59.

48. Loi no. 82-652 du 29 juillet 1982 sur la communication audiovisuelle, art 77 & 78; Décret no. 84-59 du 17 janvier 1984 relatif au régime d'autorisation préalable prévu par l'article 77 de la loi du 29 juillet 1982 sur la communication audiovisuelle; Décret no 84-60 du 17 janvier 1984 relatif au régime d'autorisation préalable pour les services de vidéographie diffusée prévu par l'article 78 de la loi du 29 juillet 1982 sur la communication audiovisuelle.

49. Marti (2011, p. 47) discusses several specific cases.

50. Loi no. 86-1067 du 30 septembre 1986, art 43 as amended. See also Consultation Publique sur l'Adaptation du Cadre Législatif de la Société de l'Information, October 1999.

51. Cons. const., DC. No. 96-378 of 23 July 1996, J.O., 27 July 1996, p. 11400.

52. Ted Cruz tweet, Twitter, 10 November 2014, copy on file with author.

53. See, for example, the controversy surrounding the removal of an iconic Vietnam war picture of a naked little girl fleeing its napalm-bombed village. “Facebook backs down from ‘napalm girl’ censorship and reinstates photo,” The Guardian, 9 September 2016. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/sep/09/facebook-reinstates-napalm-girl-photo.

54. COMMENTS OF VERIZON AND VERIZON WIRELESS, Federal Communications Commission GN Docket No. 10-127; GN Docket No. 14–28.

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Julien Mailland

Julien Mailland is Assistant Professor at the Indiana University Media School. He received his Ph.D. in Communication from the University of Southern California (Annenberg School for Communication & Journalism) and law degrees from New York University School of Law and the University of Paris (Assas School of Law).