Well-being in the age of COVID-19: The role of social support

Abstract

Investigating the impact of social support on elderly well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic is crucial, given its absorptive potential in mitigating the adverse effects of distressful circumstances. This study examines the influence of socio-demographic characteristics and social support on the well-being of older adults (aged 50+) in Ghana. The study utilized a cross-sectional survey with a quantitative approach to collect data from 400 older adults residing in the Accra and Kumasi metropolitan areas. Purposive and snowball sampling techniques were used to recruit the participants. Categorical regression analysis was employed to estimate the associations between socio-demographic factors, social support dimensions, and the well-being of older adults. Of the eleven variables used, six were significant predictors of well-being. In their order of importance, enacted social support (β = 0.496), social integration (β = 0.252), perceived social support (β = 0.149), educational level (β = 0.121), gender (β = 0.074), and employment status (β = -0.017) were the predictors of well-being among the sample. The strongest and weakest predictive factors of well-being within the sample are enacted social support and employment status, respectively. The study emphasizes that focus should not solely be on socio-demographic factors when addressing the well-being of older adults during distressful situations like the COVID-19 pandemic. Instead, it highlights the paramountcy or primacy of social support in mitigating the harmful impact of the pandemic on their well-being. Interventions should prioritize strengthening older individuals’ access to diverse social support options for enhanced well-being.

Keywords:

• well-being
• COVID-19
• social support
• older adults
• Ghana

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT

This study sheds light on the critical role of social support in promoting the well-being of older adults during distressful situations, such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The findings underscore the significance of not only socio-demographic factors but also the availability and quality of social support networks in safeguarding the mental and emotional health of older individuals. By recognizing the absorptive potential of social support, policymakers, healthcare professionals, and communities can prioritize interventions that enhance social connections, foster social integration, and strengthen enacted social support for older adults. These efforts are crucial in mitigating the adverse effects of the pandemic and promoting the overall well-being of older individuals. This study emphasizes the importance of collective responsibility in providing social support to older adults, enabling them to navigate through challenging times with resilience and improved well-being.

1. Introduction

The COVID-19 pandemic has had significant effects on mortality rates, health and well-being, the economy, and society at large. Globally, over 4.5 million deaths have been attributed to COVID-19, placing immense strain on healthcare systems (Morgan & James, 2023; Wu et al., 2022). These fatalities have not only caused immense grief and loss to families and communities but have also strained healthcare systems and resources. Lockdowns and social isolation have led to increased stress, anxiety, and depression among populations. The pandemic has had a profound impact on the health and well-being of individuals (Le et al., 2020). The physical and mental health consequences of COVID-19 extend beyond the immediate viral infection. The lockdowns, social isolation, and disruptions to healthcare services have contributed to increased levels of stress, anxiety, and depression among populations worldwide. According to a survey conducted by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the United States, approximately 40% of adults reported experiencing adverse mental health or behavioural changes due to the pandemic (Canady, 2020; Czeisler et al., 2020). In a meta-synthesis, Yan et al. (2022) discovered that the prevalence of depressive symptoms within people with COVID-19, general illness, and chronic illness groups was 27%, 26%, and 61%, respectively, while the prevalence of anxiety symptoms was 14%, 23%, and 85%, respectively. A 55.8% prevalence of depression was found among Iranian older adults (Hosseini Moghaddam et al., 2021), while Li et al. (2021) found 62.3%, 52.4% and 45.9% depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms, and combined depressive and anxiety symptoms respectively. The long-term effects on mental health and the need for comprehensive support systems are important considerations in addressing the overall impact of COVID-19 on health and well-being.

The pandemic has disproportionately affected vulnerable populations (Katey et al., 2021) and industries such as tourism, hospitality, and retail. The economic and environmental consequences extend beyond the immediate financial hardships, with potential long-term implications for poverty rates, income inequality, and access to essential services (Arimiyaw et al., 2021). Governments and international organizations and agencies have implemented various economic stimulus packages and support measures to mitigate the impact, but the recovery process remains a significant challenge. Job losses and business closures have caused economic disruptions, with 255 million full-time jobs lost in 2020 (Dangi et al., 2022; Su et al., 2022). The pandemic has also exposed and exacerbated existing social inequalities, with marginalized communities facing higher risks and fewer resources to cope with the challenges posed by the virus (Patel et al., 2020). Issues related to misinformation, vaccine hesitancy, and the spread of conspiracy theories have further complicated the social dynamics surrounding the pandemic. Addressing these social effects necessitates a comprehensive approach that includes public health strategies, equitable access to resources, and a focus on building resilience within communities. Access to social support, such as emotional, informational, and tangible assistance from individuals, communities, and other available support systems, can play a crucial role in mitigating the negative effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the well-being of individuals by providing a sense of belonging, resilience, and resources to cope with these challenges (Chen et al., 2021; Nurain et al., 2021; Su et al., 2022).

Social support is a multidimensional concept that may be defined as “the aid—the supply of tangible or intangible resources—individuals gain from their network members” (Song et al., 2011). In general, studies show that actual and perceived social support positively affects (mental) health (Song et al., 2011). A variety of studies has shown that different types of social support have varying effects on mental health (Mustanski et al., 2011; Watson et al., 2019; Wise et al., 2019). Social support from family, but not from friends, was found to be associated with post-traumatic stress disorder and depressive symptoms (Wise et al., 2019). In another study, peer social support was shown to be more protective against psychological discomfort than family social support (Mustanski et al., 2011). Sources of social support can be natural (e.g., family and friends) or more formal (e.g., mental health professionals or community groups), and when investigating the link between social support and mental health (Coventry et al., 2004), it is crucial to examine the various forms of social support. Several types of social support will coexist within individuals and combine to generate various configurable profiles. Traditional methodologies, such as variable-centred methods, may ignore variances in social support across diverse groups of people.

However, when providers of social support are unreliable or when receiving social support is very demanding or includes conflicts, it may produce negative effects on mental health (Antonucci et al., 1998; Pierce et al., 1992; Rook, 1984). Nevertheless, social support usually has a positive impact on health, especially in preventing depression and anxiety (Song et al., 2011), whereas the absence of social support (i.e., perceived social isolation and loneliness) increases the risk of mental disorders like anxiety and depression (Santini et al., 2020). The latter—depression and anxiety—are common psychological reactions to the COVID-19 pandemic (Bauer et al., 2020; Rajkumar, 2020), therefore making social support vital towards maintaining physical health and psychological during this period. A German study reveals that perceived social support is related to lower levels of anxiety, depression and sleeping disorders during the coronavirus pandemic (Bauer et al., 2020), while a Chinese study shows greater psychological distress among adult Chinese population with less social support during the COVID-19 pandemic than those who have adequate social support (Yu et al., 2020). As mentioned, the increased levels of these symptoms might be related to the social distancing and self-isolation requirements. A study in the United States found higher levels of anxiety, financial worry, and loneliness among those who live in counties with a stay-at-home order compared to other counties (Tull et al., 2020).

In their study on the mental health of emerging adults during the COVID-19 pandemic, van den Berg et al. (2021) found that parental support was crucial; assistance from mothers was highly beneficial, whereas the absence of support from fathers was particularly detrimental. Furthermore, the data demonstrate that parents remain a vital source of emotional support in emerging adulthood, not simply when dealing with personal challenges (Luecken & Gress, 2010). Overall, emerging adults may be more prone to the development of mental health disorders if their social contact is restricted, as this restricts their prospects for personal and professional growth as well as independence. In Indonesia, Saud et al. (2021) established that access to social support mediated the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on psychological stress, demonstrating its positive effect on well-being. While social support was found to lessen the deleterious effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the psychological well-being of older people, El-Zoghby et al. (2020) established that the COVID-19 pandemic has had a significant psychological impact on Egyptian adults as well as their access to social support. However, the situation in Ghana remains unexplored.

The COVID-19 pandemic became a global public health crisis that resulted in multiplicity of challenges to the world, and the rapidly escalating caseload overwhelmed healthcare systems (Agyemang-Duah et al., 2020; Morgan, 2020; Morgan & Awafo, 2020; Morgan et al., 2021a; Morgan et al., 2021b; Morgan et al., 2023; Servello & Ettorre, 2020; Wu & McGoogan, 2020). The restricted contact and interaction with other people created a sense of danger of loss of social support, which is particularly important for the aged. Social isolation, especially perceived social isolation, among older adults heightens their risk of cardiovascular, autoimmune, neurocognitive, and mental health problems (Armitage & Nellums, 2020, Bidzan-Bluma et al., 2020; Gerst-Emerson & Jayawardhana, 2015). Perceived social isolation has a stronger link with mental disorders, especially depressive symptoms (Chan et al., 2011; Ge et al., 2017; Santini et al., 2020) and neurodegeneration (Armitage & Nellums, 2020; Holwerda et al., 2014). Also, evidence abounds that socio-demographic factors like gender, age, employment status and level of education (Agrawal et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2021; Luhmann et al., 2015; Siedlecki et al., 2014) and social support variables (Esposito et al., 2021; Fingerman et al., 2021; Krendl et al., 2021) influence the well-being of people, particularly in difficult situations. The COVID-19 pandemic is one of such turbulent times in which the predictive capacity of social support as a determinant of well-being needs to be tested.

In Ghana, there is a paucity of research on the functioning of elderly people during the pandemic, with the few available studies focusing on depression, stress, and distress, rather than the positive and protective factors that may foster quality of life, life satisfaction, and well-being (Adu et al., 2021; Asante et al., 2021; Boateng et al., 2021; Dovie, 2021; Morgan et al., 2021b; Newton et al., 2021). Psychological studies undertaken during the COVID-19 pandemic rarely include or focus on people in their 60s or older (Morgan et al., 2021b). In this study, the focus was on identifying the predictors of well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic among older adults—aged 50 years and above in Ghana. The predictors (socio-demographic and the three dimensions of social support—perceived and enacted social support, in addition to social integration) of older well-being (measured in terms of emotional, financial, psychological, physical and spiritual well-being among other dimensions) during the pandemic in older people from Ghana were studied. This is the first known study that investigates the relationship between socio-demographic and social support and the psychological functioning of older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana. The study contributes to expanding the scope of knowledge on measures to adopt for better functioning and well-being of older people during the pandemic and beyond.

2. Literature review

2.1. Empirical review

The relationship between socio-demographic variables (location, gender, age, marital status, religion, education, employment, and socioeconomic status) and well-being during a crisis like COVID-19 is complex and multifaceted. These variables interact with one another and influence individuals’ experiences and outcomes during times of crisis. Understanding these relationships is crucial for developing targeted interventions and support systems that address the diverse needs of individuals. The geographic location of individuals plays a crucial role in determining their well-being during crises (Ward et al., 2007) such as the COVID-19 pandemic. Health disparities between rural or remote areas and urban centres contribute to differing health outcomes, as access to healthcare services, resources, and support systems are often limited in underserved areas. Tang et al. (2020) found that the distance of individuals to the epicentre of the COVID-19 outbreak, such as Wuhan, negatively impacted life satisfaction, particularly for young individuals or those with smaller family sizes. This suggests that physical distance from the epicentre of viral infections and other health-related crisis can have a significant influence on well-being. Wu et al. (2021) further support this notion, stating that physical distance from confirmed cases can influence citizens’ anxiety levels, which, in turn, can affect their adherence to preventive behaviours. Considering the effects of location on individuals’ well-being is essential in developing targeted strategies and interventions to address health inequalities and promote better health outcomes during pandemics. The study hypothesized that spatial location influences the well-being of older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic.

Gender differences play a crucial role in shaping individuals’ well-being during a crisis like the COVID-19 pandemic (Carli, 2020). Societal norms and gender roles influence vulnerability to the virus, coping mechanisms, risk perceptions, and access to resources for both males and females (Ronen et al., 2016). For males, societal expectations of masculinity can impact their well-being during the pandemic. Traditional notions of masculinity often discourage men from seeking help or expressing vulnerability, which can hinder their ability to cope with the challenges posed by the crisis. This may lead to increased stress, anxiety, and reluctance to seek medical care when needed (Ferreira et al., 2020). Moreover, men may face higher risks in certain occupations that require physical proximity or increased exposure to the virus, such as frontline healthcare workers or essential service providers. The combination of societal pressures and occupational hazards can have a detrimental impact on the well-being of males during the pandemic. Females may face unique challenges related to their gender roles and responsibilities. Women are often disproportionately represented in frontline healthcare and caregiving roles, exposing them to higher risks of infection. Additionally, women may experience increased caregiving demands, as they are typically responsible for managing household tasks, childcare, and caring for elderly family members. These added responsibilities can lead to increased stress, fatigue, and emotional burden, negatively impacting their well-being (Ferreira et al., 2020). Furthermore, women may face disparities in access to resources and economic opportunities, which can further exacerbate the challenges they encounter during the pandemic. Due to these intricacies, the study hypothesized that the sex of older adults influences the well-being of older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic.

During crisis, factors such as age, marital status, religion, education, and employment play significant roles in shaping individuals’ well-being (Agrawal et al., 2011). Age is a critical determinant as susceptibility to the virus and its impact on physical and mental health vary across different age groups. Older adults are particularly vulnerable and require targeted support to protect their health and well-being, while younger individuals may face unique challenges such as disruptions in education and employment opportunities. Marital status influences well-being through access to emotional support and social connections provided by spouses. Married individuals often benefit from these support systems, which can enhance their overall well-being, while single or divorced individuals may experience higher levels of social isolation and loneliness. Religion and spirituality provide a source of comfort, hope, and meaning during challenging times, contributing to individuals’ coping strategies and resilience. Religious practices and beliefs foster a sense of community, provide emotional support, and guide individuals in navigating uncertainty and adversity. Education level is closely tied to well-being as it provides individuals with better access to information, health literacy, and critical thinking skills, enabling them to understand and adhere to public health guidelines (Agrawal et al., 2011). Higher education levels also correlate with higher socioeconomic status, which can afford individuals better resources and opportunities to protect their well-being. Employment status has a significant impact on well-being, with job loss, financial insecurity, and workplace disruptions leading to increased stress levels, reduced access to resources, and adverse effects on mental health. Again, socioeconomic status plays a central role in shaping individuals’ well-being during a crisis (Ferreira et al., 2020). Both lower and higher socioeconomic statuses come with distinct challenges. While lower socioeconomic status is associated with limited access to healthcare, inadequate housing conditions, and financial instability, higher socioeconomic status is not immune to negative impacts either. For instance, individuals with higher socioeconomic status may experience disruptions to their livelihoods and financial losses, as seen during the COVID-19 pandemic where lockdowns led to significant business closures and job cuts. These disruptions can have profound implications for mental health, financial well-being, and overall life satisfaction. Despite having greater access to resources, individuals with higher socioeconomic status may still face challenges in maintaining their well-being during a crisis. Contingent on this, the study therefore, hypothesized that age, marital status, religion, education, employment and socioeconomic status significantly influences the well-being of older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic.

The literature is replete with the absorptive and protective impacts of social support during a crisis, like the COVID-19 pandemic. Social support plays a crucial role in influencing well-being during a crisis. The argument can be made that social support acts as a protective factor, buffering the negative impact of the crisis on individuals’ well-being and fostering resilience (Chen et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021; Saltzman et al., 2020; Simon et al., 2021). It influences well-being in a crisis by providing emotional comfort, practical assistance, information, and social connectedness (Ozbay et al., 2007). By acknowledging the importance of social support and fostering strong support systems, individuals are better equipped to cope with the challenges of a crisis, maintain their well-being, and foster resilience in the face of adversity.

Perceived social support plays a critical role in individuals’ well-being during a crisis like COVID-19 (Ferber et al., 2022; Grey et al., 2020), encompassing both positive and negative dimensions. On the positive side, when individuals believe they have access to support from their social networks, it provides them with a sense of security, comfort, and belonging (Özmete & Pak, 2020; Xu et al., 2020). This perception of support can positively impact their mental and emotional well-being, enabling them to cope more effectively with the challenges they face. It fosters resilience, promotes adaptive coping strategies, and enhances overall psychological functioning. On the negative side, the absence or perception of inadequate social support can have detrimental effects on individuals’ well-being (Ferber et al., 2022; Grey et al., 2020). Feelings of isolation, loneliness, and lack of support can contribute to heightened stress, anxiety, and depression. Insufficient social support networks may hinder individuals’ ability to effectively navigate the crisis, leading to decreased well-being and potentially compromising their overall health outcomes. Knowing that perceived social support serves as a buffer against shocks and disruptive situations, the paper hypothesizes that greater perceived social support during the COVID-19 pandemic is positively associated with higher levels of well-being among individuals.

Enacted social support, as a tangible form of assistance from social networks during a crisis, encompasses both positive and negative dimensions (Ozbay et al., 2007). On the positive side, when individuals receive practical help, emotional encouragement, and information sharing from others, it directly addresses their needs and contributes to their well-being. The presence of enacted social support can reduce stress, enhance individuals’ ability to cope with the challenges they face and foster a sense of belonging and connectedness (Chen et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021; Saltzman et al., 2020; Simon et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2020). It provides a safety net, promotes feelings of security, and strengthens social bonds. On the negative side, the absence of inadequacy of enacted social support can have adverse effects on individuals’ well-being. When individuals do not receive the needed assistance and support from their social networks, it can lead to increased feelings of isolation, helplessness, and distress. The lack of enacted social support may hinder individuals’ ability to effectively navigate the crisis, resulting in compromised well-being and limited resources for coping (Song & Lin, 2009). The study hypothesizes that greater enacted social support during the COVID-19 pandemic is positively associated with higher levels of well-being among individuals.

Social integration, when available, promotes a sense of belonging and connectedness, which can provide them with a valuable support system (Appau et al., 2019; Li et al., 2023). Being part of social networks and actively engaging with others allows individuals to access emotional support, practical assistance, and informational resources, fostering resilience and promoting their overall well-being. Social integration contributes to a sense of community and facilitates the exchange of ideas, experiences, and resources. When absent, social integration can have detrimental effects on individuals’ well-being during a crisis (Appau et al., 2019; Li et al., 2023) Individuals feel isolated or marginalized, and experience heightened levels of stress, loneliness, and vulnerability. The absence of social connections and support networks can limit access to resources and hinder individuals’ ability to cope effectively. Knowing the importance of social integration and creating inclusive environments that promote active participation and social connectedness is crucial for enhancing the well-being and resilience of individuals during times of crisis. Within this study, it is hypothesized that greater social integration during the COVID-19 pandemic is positively associated with higher levels of well-being among older individuals.

2.2. Theoretical review

Ecological Systems Theory, proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, provides a valuable framework for understanding the complex interplay between socio-demographic factors, social support, and well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. This theory highlights the importance of considering individuals within the context of their ecological systems, which include the microsystem (individual-level factors), mesosystem (interpersonal relationships), exosystem (community-level factors), and macrosystem (societal influences) (Bronfenbrenner, 2000; Schlüter et al., 2019). In the context of well-being and social support during the pandemic, Ecological Systems Theory recognizes that socio-demographic characteristics, such as age, gender, socioeconomic status, and education, are embedded within broader social contexts. It acknowledges that these characteristics interact with various ecological systems, shaping individuals’ access to social support and influencing their well-being outcomes (Darling, 2007). For example, socio-demographic factors may affect individuals’ social networks, the availability of support resources, and the cultural norms and values that shape the support they receive.

In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, social support can help individuals cope with the challenges and stressors brought about by the crisis. It can provide emotional comfort, practical assistance, and valuable information, which in turn can enhance individuals’ well-being. Social support can also buffer the negative impact of stress on mental health, promote resilience, and contribute to positive coping strategies. The concepts of perceived social support enacted social support and social integration were linked to explore the role of social support in individuals’ well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, without being oblivious to how socio-demographic factors on their own can influence access to social support on the one hand and influence well-being on their own. Examining these dimensions helps understand how individuals’ perceptions, received support, and social connections impact their well-being outcomes, coping strategies, and mental health during the pandemic. It provides a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted nature of social support and its significance in promoting well-being in challenging times.

This theory offers a comprehensive and holistic perspective by considering individuals within their ecological systems. It recognizes the significance of socio-demographic factors and acknowledges the dynamic interactions between individuals and their social environments. The theory also emphasizes the importance of context, as social support and well-being are influenced by specific environmental characteristics (Bronfenbrenner, 2000). Overall, the Ecological Systems Theory provides a robust framework that allows researchers to explore the complex dynamics and processes involved in promoting well-being during this challenging time.

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Study context

The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly impacted individuals’ well-being worldwide, including in Accra and Kumasi, two major cities in Ghana (Asante & Mills, 2020; Morgan et al., 2021a). The unprecedented challenges brought about by the pandemic, such as health concerns, economic disruptions, and social isolation, have highlighted the crucial role of social support in promoting and maintaining well-being during these trying times. Social support, encompassing various forms of assistance, including emotional support, practical help, and informational resources, provided by family, friends, communities, and formal support networks, has emerged as a vital resource for individuals facing the effects of the pandemic. In the context of the Accra and Kumasi metropolis, where the pandemic has significantly affected the daily lives of residents, it becomes imperative to understand the active role of social support in mitigating the negative impact on well-being. These cities have witnessed lockdowns, business closures, and restrictions on social interactions, leading to heightened feelings of loneliness, anxiety, and stress among the population. To shed light on the dynamics of social support in this context, this study aims to investigate how social support networks and mechanisms have influenced the well-being of individuals in Accra and Kumasi during COVID-19. By examining the availability, utilization, and perceived effectiveness of social support, the study seeks to uncover the active factors that can contribute to individuals’ resilience and overall well-being in the face of adversity. The findings will provide valuable insights for the development of strategies and interventions aimed at enhancing social support systems and promoting well-being in similar urban contexts impacted by the ongoing pandemic.

3.2. Research approach and design

The study was conducted in the Accra Metropolis and the Kumasi Metropolis, two of Ghana’s 261 Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs). A quantitative approach was chosen as it provided opportunities to establish relationships among the variables under investigation (Creswell, 2014; Gravetter & Forzano, 2015; Kothari, 2004). By adopting a cross-sectional survey design, the study collected data on the predictors of well-being among older adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. This design allowed for a snapshot of the results and the associated traits at a specific point in time (Hemed, 2017; Levin, 2006; Setia, 2016). Furthermore, it facilitated the estimation of the association between exposure variables, such as socio-demographic characteristics and social support, and the outcome variable of well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic (Setia, 2016). The cross-sectional research design provided valuable insights into the factors influencing well-being among older adults in the Accra and Kumasi Metropolises. It allowed for the examination of the relationship between various factors and well-being, shedding light on potential predictors (Setia, 2016). By employing this approach, the study aimed to contribute to the understanding of the challenges and experiences faced by older adults during the pandemic, specifically about their well-being. The findings are adequate to inform the development of targeted interventions and support systems to promote the well-being of older adults in similar contexts.

3.3. Sample size

The sample size was estimated using the formula n = [Z² * P * (1-P)]/d², where a 95% confidence level, a prevalence rate of 50% (P = 0.5), and a margin of error of 5% (d = 0.05) were considered. Additionally, a 10% non-response rate was factored into the calculations. Based on these parameters, the sample size was determined to be 400 older adults. To obtain the data, the research team approached a total of 424 older adults, aiming for a robust representation of the target population. A response rate of 94.6% was achieved, resulting in a final sample size of 400 participants who actively participated in the study. This high response rate indicated a strong level of engagement and interest from the older adult population, enhancing the reliability and validity of the study’s findings.

3.4. Inclusion criteria

The inclusion criteria for participant selection in this study were clear and focused. Specifically, individuals who were 50 years and above, and capable of recalling and discussing issues related to well-being and social support, were eligible to participate (Bhattacherjee, 2012; Denscombe, 2010). This age requirement ensured that the study focused specifically on the experiences and perspectives of older adults who were more likely to have accumulated a wealth of knowledge and insights in these areas. To maintain the integrity and validity of the study, certain exclusion criteria were applied. Participants who were identified as having serious illnesses, cognitive disorders, or other predisposing conditions that could potentially introduce bias were excluded from the study. By excluding individuals with such conditions, the research team aimed to minimize potential confounding factors that could affect the accuracy and reliability of the collected data. The recruitment process involved reaching out to eligible participants who met the inclusion criteria. Upon obtaining their informed consent, their responses were captured through various data collection methods, such as interviews or surveys. This approach ensured that the study gathered information directly from older adults who were able to provide valuable insights and perspectives on well-being and social support in the context of their lives.

3.5. Sampling technique

The research team implemented a systematic approach to identify additional potential respondents by drawing upon the valuable suggestions and recommendations provided by the initial respondents (Goodman, 1961; Handcock & Gile, 2011). By leveraging the insights and expertise of the initial participants, the researchers gained valuable insights into the network and identified individuals who were likely to possess relevant knowledge or experiences related to the research topic. The utilization of respondent-driven sampling (Handcock & Gile, 2011) played a pivotal role in expanding the respondent pool. This innovative sampling technique allowed the research team to reach individuals who may have been initially overlooked or were not part of traditional sampling frames. By leveraging the social networks of the initial respondents, the researchers could tap into the interconnectedness and expand the scope of potential participants. Additionally, following the recommendations of Goodman (1961), the research team employed a snowball sampling technique to further broaden the pool of potential respondents. This method involved asking the initial participants to suggest other individuals who might possess valuable insights or experiences relevant to the research objectives. This iterative process of referral and recruitment facilitated the identification of new respondents who could provide unique perspectives and enrich the overall depth and breadth of the study. Through incorporating the suggestions and recommendations of the initial respondents, the research team effectively tapped into the collective wisdom and network connections within the target population. This approach not only facilitated the identification of additional respondents but also fostered a sense of trust and rapport among the participants. The collaborative nature of the sampling process ensured a diverse range of perspectives and enhanced the validity and reliability of the research findings.

3.6. Data collection instrument

To improve the response rate, a close-ended questionnaire was used to gather the data (Kumekpor, 2002). The questionnaire was structured into three sections. The first covered socio-demographic characteristics (location, gender, age, level of education, religion, marital status, employment status and socio-economic status). The second, social support (measured in terms of perceived social support, enacted social support and social integration) the third and final aspect captured information on the well-being of the older adults during the pandemic (emotional, financial, psychological, physical and spiritual well-being among other dimensions of well-being).

3.7. Variables

The variables were measured as follows: location (1 = Greater Accra Metropolis, 2 = Kumasi Metropolis); gender (1 = male, 2 = female); age (50–60 years, 2 = 61–70 years, 3 = above 70 years); religion (1 = Christian, 2 = non-Christian); marital status (1 = married, 2 = divorced, 3 = widowed); level of education (1 = no formal education, 2 = basic education, 3 = high school education, 4 = tertiary education); employment status (1 = employed, 2 = retired); and socioeconomic status (1 = extremely poor, 2 = quite poor, 3 = not very well off, 4 = quite well off). Others include perceived social support, measured on Wilcox’s “multidimensional scale of perceived social support” (Wilcox, 2010); enacted social support, measured using the Social Support Questionnaire—Short Form by Sarason et al. (1987); social integration, measured by the social network size and the social role diversity (Brissette et al., 2000; Cohen et al., 2000); and overall well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic, measured using the psychological stress measure PSM-9 developed by Lemyre and Tessier (2003).

3.8. Data collection procedure

During the data collection phase, the research team consisted of seven independent research assistants, including four females and three males collaborated with the author. The team worked collectively to gather data from June 2020 to August 2020. This diverse composition of research assistants provided a balanced representation and contributed to the comprehensive collection of data. To ensure ethical practices, participation in the study was voluntary, and each participant provided verbal informed consent before the data collection process began. The research team explained the purpose of the study, the expected involvement of participants, and any potential risks or benefits associated with their participation. The informed consent process allowed participants to make an informed decision about their involvement. To safeguard the privacy and confidentiality of the respondents, measures were implemented to maintain anonymity. Identifying information was intentionally excluded from the range of variables collected during the study. This approach ensured that the data collected would be treated with the utmost confidentiality and that the respondents’ identities would remain undisclosed.

3.9. Analytical framework

Following the data collection, the data was inputted into SPSS software, version 20. Percentages and frequencies which are classified as descriptive analytical frameworks were employed to describe the demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the participants. The establishment of the predictors was deemed important for this study. As a result, Categorical Regression (ANOVA) was performed using the optimum scaling approach, with the convergence condition set at 0.00001. The use of ANOVA was premised on the simultaneous examination of two or more categorical independent variables it offered while computing the interactions between the independent variables. In the analysis, participants’ location, gender, age, marital status, religious affiliation, educational attainment, employment status, perceived socioeconomic status, perceived social support and enacted social support, in addition to social integration were considered the predictor variables (independent variables) whereas participants well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic was considered the outcome variable (dependent variable). The results were considered significant at an alpha of 0.05 or less.

3.10. Ethical consideration

To ensure the participation of individuals who were unable to read or write, the research team obtained verbal informed consent from the participants. This involved explaining the purpose of the study, the nature of their involvement, and any potential risks or benefits associated with their participation. The participants were allowed to ask questions and clarify any concerns before agreeing orally to take part in the study. The process of obtaining verbal informed consent allowed individuals with limited literacy to understand the study’s implications and make an informed decision regarding their participation. The researcher prioritized the dignity, safety, and well-being of the interviewees throughout the study. Participation in the research was strictly voluntary, ensuring that individuals had the freedom to choose whether or not to be involved. No identifying or sensitive information was recorded during the data collection process, further protecting the confidentiality and privacy of the participants. By maintaining this strict protocol, the researchers aimed to create a safe and respectful environment for the participants, fostering trust and promoting their comfort in sharing their experiences and perspectives.

4. Results

4.1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the participants

Of the 400 participants, 218 (54.5%) reside within the Kumasi Metropolis, 151 (37.8%) of them were males, and 249 (62.3%) were females. Up to 211 (52.8%) of the participants were aged between 50–60 years, 149 (37.2%) were aged between 61–70 years, and 40 (10%) were above 70 years. Among the participants, 331 (82.8%) were Christians, 229 (57.3%) were married, 121 (31%) had primary or basic education, 250 (62.5%) were employed (either by a state entity or private institutions or are self-employed), 157 (39.3%) were quite well off (based on self-reported social status ranking) among others (see Table 1 for further details).

Table 1. Socio-demographic characteristics of the participants

Variable	Categories	Count (400)	Percentage (%)
Location	Greater Accra Metropolis	182	45.5
	Kumasi Metropolis	218	54.5
Gender	Males	151	37.8
	Females	249	62.3
Age (years)	50–60 years	211	52.8
	61-70years	149	37.2
	Above 70 years	40	10.0
Religion	Christian	331	82.8
	Non-Christian	69	17.3
Marital Status	Married	229	57.3
	Divorced	79	19.8
	Widowed	92	23.0
Level of Education	No formal education	70	17.5
	Basic education	124	31.0
	High school education	99	24.8
	Tertiary education	107	26.8
Employment	Employed	250	62.5
	Retired	150	37.5
Socio-economic status	Extremely poor	68	17.0
	Quite poor	121	30.3
	Not very well off	157	39.3
	Quite well off	54	13.5

4.2. Dimensions of social support and well-being

In Table 2, the dimensions of social support (perceived social support, enacted social support and social integration) and overall well-being among the respondents during the COVID-19 pandemic were presented. From the results, up to 210 (52.5%) of the older adults affirmed that they felt the existence of perceived social support, 206 (51.5%) received varied social supports (emotional, financial, psychological, physical and spiritual well-being among other dimensions of well-being) from their social networks, families, friends and religious groups during the pandemic. Additionally, 275 (68%) of the older adults affirmed the existence of social integration during the pandemic, with 288 (72%) indicating overall well-being during the pandemic.

Table 2. Dimensions of Social Support and Well-being during the Pandemic

Variables	Categories	Count (400)	Percentage (%)
Perceived social support	Yes	210	52.5
	No	190	47.5
Enacted social support	Yes	206	51.5
	No	194	48.5
Social integration	Yes	275	68.8
	No	125	31.2
Overall well-being during the pandemic	Yes	288	72.0
	No	112	28.0

4.3. Predictors of well-being

The result shows that up to 40.2% of the variance in the dependent variable (well-being) is explained by the regression model with Multiple R = 0.634 and R² = 0.402. See Table 3 for details. This implies that the regression model explains 40.2% of the variance in the level of well-being of older adults (aged 50 and above) during a pandemic in the study area. The finding implies that the independent variables moderately explained the dependent variable, pointing to the possible existence of other factors that influenced the well-being of older adults, but beyond the scope of this research. The ANOVA result shows that F = 5.617, df = 12, and p = 0.000, which also implies that the regression model is statistically significant at 0.05. This shows that all the variables together have a significant relationship with the well-being of older adults during the pandemic. Out of the eleven variables used, six were significant predictors of well-being. As shown in Table 3, the variables in the order of their importance include enacted social support (β = 0.496), social integration (β = 0.252), perceived social support (β = 0.149), educational level (β = 0.121), gender (β = 0.074), and employment status (β = −0.017). The strongest significant predictor is enacted social support, whereas employment status is the least significant predictor of well-being within the sample.

Table 3. Predictors of Well-being

Variables	Standardized Coefficients		df	F	Sig.
	β	Std. Error
Individual factors
Location	−0.060	0.086	1	0.494	0.482
Gender	0.074*	0.085	1	0.755	0.038
Age	0.075	0.077	1	0.963	0.327
Marital Status	−0.039	0.062	1	0.402	0.527
Religion	0.028	0.052	1	0.280	0.597
Education	0.121*	0.053	1	5.275	0.022
Employment	−0.017*	0.050	1	0.121	0.008
Socioeconomic status	−0.070	0.107	1	0.423	0.516
Dimensions of social support
Perceived social support	0.149*	0.124	1	0.154	0.016
Enacted social support	0.496*	0.189	1	0.255	0.024
Social integration	0.252*	0.192	2	1.724	0.018
Multiple R	R^2
0.634	0.402

5. Discussion

This study examined the determinants of well-being among older adults—aged 50 years and above during the COVID-19 pandemic in Ghana. Demographic and socioeconomic in addition to social support dimensions were employed as the predictor variables of the well-being (outcome variable) among the sample. The study identified a high prevalence of well-being (72%) among the sample. Among the predictor variables examined, six were identified as significant predictors of well-being, highlighting their importance in influencing individuals’ overall sense of wellness. In their order of importance, enacted social support, social integration, perceived social support, educational level, gender, and employment status were the predictors of well-being among the sample. The strongest predictor is enacted social support, whereas employment status is the least predictor of well-being within the sample. This is in agreement with the findings of Luhmann et al. (2015), Agrawal et al. (2011) and Siedlecki et al. (2014) which observed that socioeconomic variables and social support significantly influence individual well-being. These findings suggest that factors such as enacted social support, social integration, perceived social support, educational level, gender, and employment status play crucial roles in shaping well-being outcomes. Understanding the impact of these variables can inform the development of targeted interventions and strategies to promote well-being, particularly during challenging times such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

The study established an association between enacted social support and well-being among the sample. The findings of the study provide empirical evidence to support the hypothesis (greater enacted social support during the COVID-19 pandemic would be positively linked to higher levels of well-being among individuals), as they reveal a significant association between enacted social support and well-being among the sample. This result suggest that individuals who receive tangible and practical support from their social networks during the pandemic experience higher levels of well-being, highlighting the importance of enacted social support as a protective factor in maintaining psychological resilience during challenging times. Evidence abounds that neighbourhood social support can reduce psychological distress and buffer the effect of COVID-19-related stressors, whereas support from friends/relatives affected stress coping. The influence of social support on the well-being of older adults in Ghana supports other studies that reported its cushioning impact in times of distress (Chen et al., 2021; Li et al., 2021; Saltzman et al., 2020; Simon et al., 2021; Yu et al., 2020). Increased social support significantly correlated with improved well-being, and may serve as the basis for psychological interventions. As such, maintaining excellent social and physical health requires a lot of social support. High social support has been identified to aid and guard against trauma and situational stress, as well as lower morbidity and death (Ozbay et al., 2007). During the COVID-19 pandemic, people have been seen trying to help others by posting comforting information on the internet. Through the employment of good coping techniques and a reduction in the interpretation of an event, social support as a protective stress process removes or minimizes the consequences of stress experiences to lessen panic-related stress (Cohen, 2004). The study reinforced the importance of perceived and actual social support in the lives of older adults, especially during times of distress. Acting as a buffer against uncertainties, social support is the best strategy to cope with the outbreak and transmission among humans (Song & Lin, 2009). The present study provides implications to protect older adults’ well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. With the multiple changes that older adults go through, as well as the added challenges brought on by COVID-19, supporting interactions with close others may be quite important. However, when assessing enacted support, future research should address the circumstances of the relationships as well as the stressfulness of the incidents. The study’s findings emphasize the significance of enacting social support measures and fostering strong social connections to promote well-being and mitigate the negative impacts of future pandemics. This should be done through prioritizing the development and implementation of interventions that strengthen social support networks, providing accessible resources for individuals to seek and receive support, promoting community engagement and involvement, and fostering resilience and coping strategies, future pandemics can be better managed to enhance overall well-being.

The hypothesis of this study posited that there is a positive association between greater perceived social support during the COVID-19 pandemic and higher levels of well-being among individuals. The findings of the study support this hypothesis by establishing a significant association between perceived social support and well-being among the sample. This suggests that individuals who perceive higher levels of social support during the pandemic are more likely to experience higher levels of well-being. These results emphasize the importance of social support in promoting well-being during challenging times and provide empirical evidence to support the role of perceived social support as a significant factor in determining individuals’ well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. This finding iss supported by plethora of anecdotal evidence on perceived social support and well-being during a stressful situation and the COVID-19 pandemic in particular (Ferber et al., 2022; Grey et al., 2020; Özmete & Pak, 2020; Xu et al., 2020). In the current study, perceived social support was found to have significant inverse associations with anxiety, depression, loneliness, irritability, and sleep quality—well-being, with higher levels of support being associated with lower scores on these specific outcome measures. As an acute stressor, the COVID-19 pandemic and its associated social exclusion policy increase the sensitivity of lonely persons to anxiety. Yet, the sense of increased social support might make individuals feel cared for, understood, and respected by others, which can boost self-efficacy in dealing with future uncertainty. Social work should be the dominant field in the protection of older people’s well-being, with multi-dimensional crisis assessment and intervention abilities, and new services established for such crises. The goal of these programs should be to improve the public impression of social support. The finding highlights the need to prioritize and strengthen social support networks in emergency response plans. It also underscores the importance of incorporating interventions that enhance perceived social support into public health strategies to mitigate the negative impact of pandemics on individuals’ mental health and overall well-being. The finding further calls for further research on innovative approaches to fostering social support systems, as they can serve as protective factors and contribute to individuals’ resilience in future pandemics.

The results of this study provide empirical evidence supporting the hypothesis that social integration is positively associated with higher levels of well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. These findings emphasize the significance of maintaining social connections, fostering social integration, and promoting social support as essential components of comprehensive pandemic response strategies (Appau et al., 2019). Efforts should be made to facilitate and encourage social connections through various means, such as virtual platforms, community engagement, and support networks, to ensure that individuals have access to social support systems that contribute to their well-being. Moreover, the findings suggest that policies and public health measures should not solely focus on physical health and containment strategies but also consider the psychosocial well-being of individuals. This can help alleviate the adverse psychological consequences of prolonged social isolation and contribute to individuals’ overall resilience and ability to cope with crises. By recognizing the role of social integration in individuals’ well-being, policymakers, healthcare professionals, and communities can better address the psychosocial impact of COVID-19 and future pandemics, ultimately improving the overall resilience and mental health outcomes of affected populations.

Similar to the findings of Agrawal et al. (2011), this study found level of education and employment status influences well-being. Further, the study contributes to the literature as it supports the plethora of past evidence that established an association between gender, educational attainment and employment status, as predictors of well-being among older people (Ferreira et al., 2020). That said, the study result contradicts that of Liu et al. (2021), where notably, gender and educational level did not emerge as predictors of well-being among Australian university students. In China, Wang et al. (2020) revealed that gender is correlated with well-being, especially during a crisis, with females more likely to experience anxiety and overall low well-being compared to males. Gender is a significant social factor in health and well-being throughout life, confirming the study’s hypothesis of the association between gender and well-being among older people during the COVID-19 pandemic. Women are more likely than males to suffer from mental health issues such as depression and anxiety. Numerous studies have revealed that women utilize coping techniques geared at modifying their emotional responses to stressful circumstances, whereas males use more problem-focused or instrumental approaches to dealing with stressful events (Endler & Parker, 1990). Owing to the association between gender and well-being within the sample, gendered approaches to well-being during a crisis should be implemented. It, therefore, implies that one fit all approaches will produce deleterious effects among older males and females, with segregated and well-focused gendered and gender-related interventions should be seen and implemented. Recognizing the differences in coping strategies and mental health needs between males and females can help tailor support systems and services to address their specific challenges and promote better mental well-being. By implementing gender-sensitive interventions, future pandemics can better address the mental health disparities experienced by different genders and ensure that everyone receives appropriate support and care during times of crisis.

Higher levels of education have been linked with improved well-being. For instance, an additional year of schooling reduced the risk of reporting any symptoms of sadness (11.3%) and anxiety (9.8%). Those with a higher level of education also had fewer severe symptoms, such as sadness (6.1%) and anxiety (5.6%) (Kondirolli & Sunder, 2022). As such, education has been demonstrated to be one of the most reliable predictors of life outcomes such as job, income, and social standing. As a result, it is a powerful predictor of increased health and well-being. Greater levels of education have been linked to improved mental health. The reasons given are that educated individuals have more options, giving them more control over their life and more security. Higher education recipients are more likely to earn more during their lifetimes. The implication for future pandemics is that promoting access to education can have a positive impact on the mental health and well-being of individuals. By improving educational opportunities, especially for vulnerable populations, there is a greater potential to reduce the risk of mental health issues such as sadness and anxiety. Investing in education can empower individuals, providing them with more options and control over their lives, leading to increased resilience during times of crisis. Therefore, as part of pandemic preparedness and response, it is crucial to prioritize educational initiatives and ensure equitable access to education for all individuals, thereby fostering better mental health outcomes and overall well-being.

Upon examining the coefficients of the socio-demographic predictors of well-being within the sample, it becomes evident that these variables had minimal influence on the well-being of older adults compared to the social support variables. This implies that factors such as educational level, gender, and employment status, while relevant in other contexts, play a relatively smaller role in determining well-being during distressful situations like the COVID-19 pandemic. Instead, the findings highlight the primacy of social support, including enacted social support, social integration, and perceived social support, in promoting the well-being of older adults. This has important implications for future pandemics, suggesting that interventions and policies aimed at enhancing well-being should prioritize the provision of social support networks and resources. By bolstering social support systems and encouraging the utilization of diverse support options, it is possible to mitigate the adverse impact of pandemics on the mental health and overall well-being of older adults.

6. Strengths and weaknesses

The present study makes noteworthy contributions to the literature on well-being, specifically focusing on older adults during a pandemic. Firstly, the study’s findings provide valuable insights into the factors that significantly predict well-being among older adults, with enacted social support emerging as the strongest predictor. This knowledge can guide policymakers, healthcare professionals, and intervention programs in developing targeted strategies to enhance social support systems and promote the well-being of older adults during challenging times. Secondly, the study’s examination of socio-demographic characteristics and their influence on well-being adds depth to our understanding of the complex interplay between individual factors and social support. By identifying factors such as social integration, educational level, gender, and employment status as predictors of well-being, the study highlights the multidimensional nature of social support and its impact on the well-being of older adults. Furthermore, the study’s focus on the Ghanaian context contributes to the diversity of research on well-being during a pandemic. By specifically investigating the experiences of older adults in the Accra and Kumasi Metropolitan Areas, the study acknowledges the importance of cultural and contextual factors in shaping social support and well-being outcomes. This localized perspective provides valuable insights that can inform contextually sensitive interventions and policies to support older adults in Ghana. Again, the study’s use of a quantitative approach and the collection of data from a relatively large sample of 400 older adults enhance the robustness and generalizability of the findings. The inclusion of a sufficient number of participants allows for more reliable statistical analysis and strengthens the validity of the study’s conclusions. In addition, the study’s consideration of both perceived and enacted social support expands our understanding of the different dimensions of social support and their differential effects on well-being. By examining both subjective perceptions of support and the actual support received, the study captures a more comprehensive picture of the social support landscape for older adults during the pandemic. Lastly, the study’s identification of social integration as a significant predictor of well-being highlights the importance of community and interpersonal connections for older adults’ overall well-being. This finding underscores the potential benefits of fostering social networks, promoting community engagement, and encouraging meaningful social interactions as part of interventions aimed at enhancing the well-being of older adults. These strengths collectively contribute to the significance of the study and provide valuable insights for policymakers, healthcare professionals, and researchers in designing targeted interventions, promoting social support, and improving the well-being of older adults during a pandemic.

While the study provides valuable insights, it is important to acknowledge its limitations. Firstly, the cross-sectional design of the study restricts the exploration of cause-effect relationships, preventing the establishment of temporal associations between variables. A longitudinal approach would have allowed for a better understanding of the dynamic nature of social support and its impact on well-being over time. Secondly, the study did not thoroughly examine the influence of access to and availability of resources on well-being. Socio-economic conditions can significantly shape individuals’ experiences and access to support systems, and their inclusion as separate factors could have provided a more comprehensive understanding of the relationships between social support and well-being. Future research should consider incorporating measures of resource availability to gain a more nuanced understanding of the impact on older adults’ well-being. Thirdly, the use of convenience sampling introduces potential selection bias and limits the generalizability of the findings. The participants may not accurately represent the broader population of older adults in Ghana, as those who were more accessible or willing to participate may have different characteristics or experiences than the wider population. Employing a more diverse and representative sampling method, such as random sampling, would enhance the external validity of the study’s findings. In addition to these limitations, the study focused exclusively on elderly individuals from the Accra and Kumasi Metropolitan Areas, which may not fully capture the experiences and well-being of older adults in other regions of Ghana. Including a more geographically diverse sample would provide a broader perspective on the role of social support in different contexts. The study relied on self-reported measures, which may be subject to recall bias or social desirability bias. Future research could incorporate objective measures or multiple informants to enhance the validity of the findings and reduce potential biases. Lastly, the study did not investigate potential cultural or contextual factors that may influence the perception and availability of social support among older adults in Ghana. Considering the cultural nuances and social dynamics specific to the Ghanaian context could provide valuable insights into how social support operates and its impact on well-being. Addressing these limitations and conducting further research in these areas would contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the complex relationship between social support, socio-demographic factors, and the well-being of older adults during distressful situations like the COVID-19 pandemic

7. Conclusion

This study examines the influence of socio-demographic characteristics and the different dimensions of social support on the well-being of older adult in Ghana during the COVID-19 pandemic. To achieve this, a cross-sectional survey with a quantitative approach was conducted, involving 400 older adults from the Accra and Kumasi Metropolitan Areas. Purposive and snowballing sampling techniques were utilized to gather data. Categorical regression analysis was employed to identify the socio-demographic and social support dimensions associated with older adults’ well-being during the pandemic. The study’s findings indicate that among the eleven variables examined, six emerged as significant predictors of well-being in older adults. Enacted social support was identified as the most influential factor, emphasizing the importance of tangible support from family, friends, and community networks. Additionally, social integration, which reflects the extent of an individual’s involvement in social activities and relationships, was found to play a significant role in promoting well-being. The perceived social support received by older adults, indicating their subjective assessment of available support, also had a positive impact on their well-being. Furthermore, educational level, gender, and employment status were identified as additional factors that influenced well-being, albeit to a lesser extent. These findings highlight the paramount importance of social support, particularly enacted social support, in safeguarding the well-being of older adults during challenging and distressing situations like the COVID-19 pandemic. In conclusion, this study underscores the importance of social support (including perceived, enacted, and social integration) as a significant correlate of older adults’ well-being during the pandemic. The findings emphasize the need to prioritize the maintenance of social relationships and the enhancement of social support systems for older individuals. By encouraging older adults to leverage diverse social support options, the harmful impact of the pandemic on the well-being of older people can be mitigated.

The benefits of social support for emotional well-being during the pandemic as suggested by the results of this study correspond to the evolutionary social perception of mammal survival: keeping social interactions alive in response to a social threat According to the findings of this study, the benefits of social support for emotional survival during a pandemic match to the evolutionary social perspective of animal survival: sustaining social relationships in the face of social danger. In view of this, during pandemics and other stressful events, social support and stress-reduction components should be included in the development of support for older adults. Maintaining social relationships and enhancing perceived social support should be prioritized during the pandemic. In addition, family support is critical for adults. As we face increasing challenges, it becomes even more crucial to extend social support to our family members. Older people must make full use of diverse social support options to mitigate the pandemic’s harmful impact on their mental health and overall well-being. It is recommended that policymakers and healthcare professionals prioritize the development and implementation of interventions aimed at strengthening social support networks for the elderly. These interventions should focus on facilitating access to various support systems and promoting social integration. These interventions should prioritize the development of community-based programs, intergenerational connections, technology-enabled social engagement, training for healthcare professionals, collaboration with community organizations, and public awareness campaigns. Additionally, future studies should explore additional variables and dimensions of social support and investigate their specific impacts on the well-being of elderly individuals during times of crisis. Such research would further enhance our understanding of the mechanisms through which social support can positively influence the well-being of older adults in distressful situations. In conclusion, the results of the current study have several practical implications.

Author contribution

AKM conceptualized, drafted and prepared the manuscript for submission.

Availability of data and material

The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Ethics approval and consent to participate

Verbal informed consent was obtained from the participants by agreeing orally to participate in the study as most could not read or write. As the dignity, safety and well-being of the interviewees were a matter of primary concern to the researchers, participation in the study was strictly voluntary, and no identifying or sensitive information was recorded.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Funding

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Notes on contributors

Anthony Kwame Morgan

Anthony Kwame Morgan is a researcher with a Master of Science Degree in Development Policy and Planning and a Bachelor of Arts Degree in Geography and Rural Development from Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana. He possesses a strong foundation in understanding the complexities of development, public health, and social issues. His research interests encompass a broad range of topics including public health, health services research, ageing, rural development, and poverty and livelihood studies. Anthony’s expertise in these areas equips him with the necessary knowledge and skills to contribute meaningfully to the field of research and policy formulation. His commitment to addressing public health challenges, particularly about the well-being of older adults, showcases his dedication to improving the lives of vulnerable populations. By focusing on issues such as rural development, poverty, and livelihood studies, Anthony aims to create sustainable solutions that address the multidimensional aspects of human development.