Trajectories of Executive Functions and ADHD Symptoms in Preschoolers and the Role of Negative Parental Discipline

ABSTRACT

In the present study, we investigated whether the longitudinal growth trajectories of executive functions (EF) and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms are related. In addition, we investigated whether negative discipline moderated these longitudinal relations. The sample consisted of predominantly clinically referred preschoolers (N = 248, age 42–66 months at Time 1; 79.0% boys). Assessment occurred three times: at baseline, at 9 months, and at 18 months. EF was assessed with five EF tasks. ADHD symptoms (Child Behavior Checklist 1.5–5) were reported by parents. Groups of medium to high and low negative discipline were based on mother- and father-reports (Parenting Practices Inventory). Growth curve models showed that EF generally increased and ADHD symptoms generally decreased over time. Parallel process models showed that there was no relation between the change in EF and the change in ADHD symptoms over time, suggesting no co-development. However, higher EF at baseline was related to lower ADHD symptoms at baseline. This was irrespective of whether children were exposed to high or low negative discipline. Overall, the results suggest that, while EF and ADHD symptoms are related, they develop independently across the preschool years.

Acknowledgments

S.B. Geeraerts is part of the Consortium on Individual Development (CID). CID is funded through the Gravitation program of the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO grant number 024.001.003).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Netherlands Organazation for Scientific Research [Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek] [NWO grant number 024.001.003].