From Vietnam to Desert Fox: civil-military relations in modern democracies

Abstract

The ability of the US and other advanced democracies to use force has been reduced by the evolution of civil-military relations since Vietnam. Profound changes in such societies have greatly reduced their ability to tolerate combat casualties - or to inflict them on enemy civilians. Technological change was supposed to favour civilian control over military operations through better telecommunications. But mass-media applications of the same technology have given visibility to military commanders, increasing their power. Because they often use their power to discourage combat actions proposed by diplomats and political appointees, there is a reversal of roles: military officers advocate diplomatic solutions, forcing civilians to advocate combat actions even though they lack the necessary expertise. The outcome of all these changes is illustrated by the December 1998 Operation Desert Fox air attack on Iraq: maximum mass-media publicity; minimum casualties; and ambiguous results.