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Notes
1. John N. Paden and Edward W. Soja, The African Experience (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1970), 28.
2. The term ‘subjects’ is used in the context of Mahmood Mamdani's analysis of a colonial African state as a bifurcated power that mediated racial domination through tribally organized local authorities, reproducing racial identity in citizens and ethnic identity in subjects.
3. This concern is very prominent in documents in which urban authorities and colonial officials debate African urbanization.
4. Mahmood Mamdani, Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Colonialism (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 24.
5. Brian Raftopoulos and Tsuneo Yoshikuni, eds., Sites of Struggle: Essays in Zimbabwe's Urban History (Harare: Weaver Press, 1999), 1.
6. Ibid.
7. Richard Gray, The Two Nations: Aspects of the Development of Race Relations in the Rhodesias and Nyasaland (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1960), 33.
8. Raftopoulos and Yoshikuni, Sites of Struggle, 1.
9. Ibid.
10. Tsuneo Yoshikuni, African Urban Experiences in Colonial Zimbabwe: A Social History of Harare before 1925 (Harare: Weaver Press, 2007), 2.
11. Some of the key works in this respect include Brian Raftopoulos and Ian Phimister, eds., Keep on Knocking: A History of the Labour Movement in Zimbabwe, 1900‐1997 (Harare: Baobab Books, 1997); Duncan G. Clarke, Contract Workers and Underdevelopment in Rhodesia (Gweru: Mambo Press, 1974); Ian R. Phimister and C. van Onselen, Studies in the History of Mine Labour in Colonial Zimbabwe (Gweru: Mambo Press, 1978).
12. Terence O. Ranger, The African Voice in Southern Rhodesia, 1898‐1930 (London: Heinemann, 1970), was path breaking in this regard.
13. Clyde Sanger, Central African Emergency (London: Heinemann, 1960), 206.
14. Ibid.
15. Ian R. Phimister, “Narratives of Progress: Zimbabwean Historiography and the End of History,” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 30:1 (2012), 28.
16. Yoshikuni, for example, has identified some of these organizations more as self‐help organizations than as proto‐nationalist organizations. See Tsuneo Yoshikuni, “Strike Action and Self‐help Associations: Zimbabwean Worker Protest and Culture after World War I,” Journal of Southern African Studies 15:3 (1989): 440‐468.
17. Enocent Msindo, “Social and Political Responses to Colonialism on the Margins: Community, Chieftaincy and Ethnicity in Bulilima‐Mangwe, Zimbabwe, 1890‐1930,” in Peter Limb, Norman Etherington, and Peter Midgley, eds., Grappling with the Beast: Indigenous Southern African Responses to Colonialism, 1840‐1930 (Leiden: Brill, 2010), 117.
18. Timothy Scarnecchia, The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence in Zimbabwe: Harare and Highfield, 1940‐1964 (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2008), 21.
19. Jocelyn Alexander, JoAnn McGregor, and Terence Ranger, Violence and Memory: One Hundred Years in the “Dark Forests” of Matabeleland (Portsmouth: Heinemann, 2000), 85.
20. Scarnecchia, The Urban Roots of Democracy and Political Violence in Zimbabwe, 3.
21. Chengetai J. M. Zvobgo, A History of Zimbabwe, 1890‐2000 and Postscript, Zimbabwe, 2000‐2008 (Cambridge: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2009).
22. For more on the Pioneer Column see Barry A. Kosmin, “On the Imperial Frontier: The Pioneer Community of Salisbury in November 1899,” Rhodesian History 2 (1971): 25‐ 37.
23. See Paul L. Moorcraft and Peter McLaughlin, The Rhodesian War: A Military History (Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books, 2008), which has a chapter that chronicles the roots of conflict between white settlers and the Ndebele and Shona and explains the racial attitudes that were solidified as a result of the conflict.
24. Munyaradzi Mushonga, “White Power, White Desire: Miscegenation in Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe),” African Journal of History and Culture 5:1 (January 2013), 2.
25. This was a dominant view at least up to the Second World War, when the changes in Southern Rhodesia's political economy forced the state to reconsider this position.
26. The new Location was established and regulated under the Native Urban Locations Ordinance of 1906.
27. Yoshikuni, African Urban Experiences in Colonial Zimbabwe.
28. National Archives of Zimbabwe (NAZ), S246/ 782, Government Notice Number 70 of 1908, Chief Secretary's Office, 19 March 1908.
29. Ibid.
30. NAZ, LG38, Chief Inspector, Southern Rhodesia Constabulary to Town Clerk, 29 April 1908.
31. NAZ, LG38, Sergeant Delahay to Sub‐Inspector. Southern Rhodesia Constabulary, 19 February 1908.
32. Early Salisbury was divided into two quarters, the Kopje in the west and the Causeway in the east. The kopje was mostly inhabited by non‐official residents and was dominated by principal business establishments, while the Causeway had government offices, official residences, the English and Roman Catholic churches, etc. See The Rhodesia Herald, 8 February 1895.
33. NAZ, LG 52/6/1, John Smith, Inspector of Location to Town Clerk, 25 January 1905.
34. Ibid.
35. NAZ, LG 38, Petition to Town Council, 2 February 1906.
36. For a comprehensive analysis of this see Jason Hickel, “Engineering the Township Home: Domestic Transformations and Urban Revolutionary Consciousness,” in Meghan Healy and Jason Hickel, eds., Ekhaya: The Politics of Home in KwaZulu‐Natal (Pietermaritzburg: University of KwaZulu‐Natal Press, 2014): 131‐161.
37. Hickel, “Engineering the Township Home,” 143.
38. Lewis H. Gann and Peter Duignan, White Settlers in Tropical Africa (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1962), 83‐84.
39. Yoshikuni comes to the same conclusion regarding this position. See Yoshikuni, African Urban Experiences in Colonial Zimbabwe, 16.
40. The Rhodesia Herald, March 1908.
41. Ibid.
42. Yoshikuni, African Urban Experiences in Colonial Zimbabwe, 38.
43. Ibid., 41.
44. Ibid., 39.
45. NAZ, LG52/6/1, G. Reilly to Town Clerk, 3 March 1914.
46. NAZ, LG52/6/2, Location Superintendent to Town Clerk, 30 June 1920.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. NAZ, LG52, /6/2, H.E Hicks, M.O.H, to Town Clerk, 20 June 1920.
50. This concern is raised in correspondence between H.E. Hicks and the Town Clerk, NAZ, LG52, /6/2, H.E Hicks, M.O.H, to Town Clerk, 20 June 1920.
51. Ibid.
52. NAZ, LG52/6/1, Reilly to Town Clerk, 3 March 1914.
53. NAZ, LG52/6/1, J. Smith to Town Clerk, 14 November 1912.
54. NAZ, S138/41 Assistant Native Commissioner to Superintendent of Natives, Salisbury, 13 March 1924.
55. Belinda Bozzoli, Theatres of Struggle and the End of Apartheid (Athens: Ohio University Press, 2004), 57.
56. NAZ S246/ 782, Government Notice no. 70 of 1908. The Ordinance is quoted extensively in communication between government officials and municipal authorities.
57. NAZ, LG93/11, Commonage and Markets Committee minutes, 7 November 1913.
58. Ibid.
59. NAZ, LG38, Memorandum by H. L. Lezard, 13 March 1994.
60. Boris Gussman, “Industrial Efficiency and the Urban African: A Study of Conditions in Southern Rhodesia,” Africa: Journal of the International African Institute 23:2 (1953), 138.
61. NAZ, LG38 C Clark to Town Clerk, 9 June 1908.
62. Quoted in Yoshikuni, African Urban Experiences in Colonial Zimbabwe, 45.
63. NAZ, LG93/10, Council Minutes, 22 September 1909.
64. Larry W. Bowman, Politics in Rhodesia: White Power in an African State (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1973), 6.
65. Yoshikuni, African Urban Experiences in Colonial Zimbabwe, 11.
66. Ibid.
67. Ibid.
68. Quoted in Yoshikuni, African Urban Experiences in Colonial Zimbabwe, 46.
69. Yoshikuni, African Urban Experiences in Colonial Zimbabwe, 46.
70. The Rhodesia Herald, 2 November 1910.
71. Yoshikuni has a very interesting discussion of these beer protests. He also discusses how the municipal authorities took over beer brewing and distribution in the Location. See Yoshikuni, African Urban Experiences in Colonial Zimbabwe, 46‐60.
72. NAZ, LG52/6/1, Reilly to Town Clerk, 3 March 1914.
73. NAZ, S85, Evidence, Native Affairs Commission (Salisbury Municipal Location), 4 December 1930.
74. Ibid.
75. NAZ S85; Government Notice Number 248, 18 April 1924.
76. NAZ, S85, Robert Lloyd Pollet (Town Clerk) ‐ Laws and Regulations.
77. NAZ, S85, Evidence, Native Affairs Commission (Salisbury Municipal Location), 4 December 1930.
78. Ibid.
79. NAZ, S86, Report, Native Affairs Commission (Salisbury Municipal Location).
80. Ibid.
81. Ibid.
82. Julie Bonello, “The Development of Early Settler Identity in Southern Rhodesia: 1890‐1914,” International Journal of African Historical Studies 43:2 (2010), 348.
83. Ibid.
84. Yoshikuni, African Urban Experiences in Colonial Zimbabwe, 19.
85. “British South Africa Company: Native Rules and Regulations,” Rhodesia Herald, 29 October 1892.
86. Ibid.
87. “‘Employer,’ Black Domestics” [Letter to the Editor], Rhodesia Herald, 20 October 1900.
88. James Muzondidya, Walking a Tightrope: Towards a Social History of the Coloured Community in Zimbabwe (Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2005), 23.
89. Ibid.
90. Rhodesia Herald, 30 March 1905.
91. Gussman, “Industrial Efficiency and the Urban African,” 139.
92. NAZ, S85, Evidence, Native Affairs Commission (Salisbury Municipal Location), 4 December 1930.
93. Ibid.
94. Yvonne Vera, Butterfly Burning (Harare: Baobab Books, 1998), 44.
95. Ibid.
96. Lewis H. Gann, A History of Southern Rhodesia: Early Days to 1934 (London: Chatto and Windus, 1965), 269.
97. Terence O. Ranger, “City versus State in Zimbabwe: Colonial Antecedents of the Current Crisis,” Journal of Eastern African Studies 1:2 (2007), 163.
98. The Southern Rhodesia Native Association (SRNA) had emerged in the immediate post‐World War period in 1919.
99. Black Africans lost their lands through wholesale evictions and forced removal; they were forcibly moved to areas designated as native reserves/communal lands. Those areas generally had poor, infertile soil and were located in the most inhospitable and tsetse‐ridden areas of the country.
100. NAZ, S246/782, Notes of Meeting at CNC's office with Delegation from SRNA, 1 June 1927.
101. NAZ, S246/782, Speech by the Rhodesia Native Association President, 9 September 1924.
102. Charles Mzingeli was the organization's General Secretary and a very influential member of Salisbury's African community.
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Kudakwashe Chitofiri
Kudakwashe Chitofiri is a lecturer at the National University of Lesotho and a Research Fellow with the University of the Free State's Centre for Gender and Africa Studies. He received his PhD in Africa Studies in 2016 from the International Studies Group, University of the Free State. Prior to that, he graduated with an Honours in Economic History and Master of Arts in African Economic History from the University of Zimbabwe. His areas of interest include urban history, protest history, and the history of migration.