ART AND GEOGRAPHY: PATTERNS IN THE HIMALAYA∗

∗ We wish to thank local officials and artists in various regions of the Himalaya from Kashmir to Assam for their help and assistance. In particular we acknowledge the help and advice of the late King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev of Nepal, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuk of Bhutan, and Sir Tashi Namgyal and Palden Thondup Namgyal, former rulers of Sikkim. Sir Tashi, himself a renowned Himalayan artist, was of considerable assistance in explaining and in interpreting the painting, sculpture, music, dance, architecture, and handicrafts of the Himalayan realm. Thanks are due to lamas of Buddhist monasteries, village priests in Hindu and tribal areas of the Himalaya, Islamic artisans in Kashmir, peasants, nomads, merchants, artists, musicians, dancers, and craftsmen whom the authors had the privilege of knowing in their homeland, and who in the course of their talks and interviews have contributed to the development of ideas set forth in this paper. All the accompanying photographs were made by the authors during their travels in the Himalaya; we are indebted to Gunvant Rai, B. K. Narain, V. P. Misra, and S. Lal for permission to photograph art objects for reproduction. Our thanks are due to Sir D. P. Varma, a scholar of Himalayan art and literature, for reviewing this manuscript and offering suggestions for improvement.

ABSTRACT

The Himalaya embrace some ancient cultures which have remained geographically and culturally distinct. These cultures are expressed in their vernacular art which, in contrast to international art, represents both place and culture in the anthropological sense. Vernacular art mirrors historical and geographical forces and it provides insight into social aspirations, and thereby is important in understanding social behavior. Most aspects of the art forms of painting, dance, music, embroidery, architecture, and sculpture are regionally distinct.

Notes

∗ We wish to thank local officials and artists in various regions of the Himalaya from Kashmir to Assam for their help and assistance. In particular we acknowledge the help and advice of the late King Mahendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev of Nepal, King Jigme Dorji Wangchuk of Bhutan, and Sir Tashi Namgyal and Palden Thondup Namgyal, former rulers of Sikkim. Sir Tashi, himself a renowned Himalayan artist, was of considerable assistance in explaining and in interpreting the painting, sculpture, music, dance, architecture, and handicrafts of the Himalayan realm. Thanks are due to lamas of Buddhist monasteries, village priests in Hindu and tribal areas of the Himalaya, Islamic artisans in Kashmir, peasants, nomads, merchants, artists, musicians, dancers, and craftsmen whom the authors had the privilege of knowing in their homeland, and who in the course of their talks and interviews have contributed to the development of ideas set forth in this paper. All the accompanying photographs were made by the authors during their travels in the Himalaya; we are indebted to Gunvant Rai, B. K. Narain, V. P. Misra, and S. Lal for permission to photograph art objects for reproduction. Our thanks are due to Sir D. P. Varma, a scholar of Himalayan art and literature, for reviewing this manuscript and offering suggestions for improvement.

1 For a discussion of the dichotomy between the contemporary modern or international art and vernacular folk art from the perspective of the Indian artists, see A. K. Dutta, “Contemporary Indian Art: Search for a New Identity?”Indian and Foreign Review, Vol. II (December 1, 1973), pp. 18–19. During a visit to India in 1973 Andre Malraux, the famous French humanist, disappointed with the sweep of abstract international art in India advised young artists to go back to the vernacular or folk art which derived inspiration from the rich indigenous thought, culture, symbols and signs of India. See A. S. Raman, “Contemporary Indian Artists,”Indian and Foreign Review, Vol. II (August 1, 1974), pp. 13–17.

2 Landscape painting also has a geographical base. See Ronald Rees, “Geography and Landscape Painting: An Introduction to a Neglected Field,”Scottish Geographical Magazine, Vol. 89 (1973), pp. 147 57; John Constable and the Art of Geography,”Geographical Review, Vol. 66 (1976), pp. 59 72.

3 For a discussion of the physical geology and physiography of the Himalaya, see D. N. Wadia, “The Himalaya Mountains: Their Age, Origin and Subcrustal Relations,”Himalayan Journal, Vol. 26 (1965), pp. 20 37; A. Gansser, Geology of the Himalayas (New York: Interscience Publishers, 1964), pp. 235–61.

4 P. P. Karan, “Geographic Regions of the Himalaya,”Bulletin of Tibetology, Vol. 3 (July 1966), pp. 5 25. For geography of the Himalayan realm, see S. C. Bose, Geography of the Himalaya (New Delhi: National Book Trust, 1972); P. P. Karan and W. M. Jenkins, The Himalayan Kingdoms: Bhutan, Sikkim and Nepal (Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand Co., 1963); P. P. Karan, Nepal: A Cultural and Physical Geography (Lexington, Ky.: University of Kentucky Press, 1960); idem, Bhutan: A Physical and Cultural Geography (Lexington, Ky.: University of Kentucky Press, 1967); Jacques Dupius, L'Himalaya (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1972).

5 For the human occupance of the Terai, see L. R. Singh, The Terai Region of U. P.: A Study in Human Geography (Allahabad: Ram Narain Lal Beni Prasad, 1965).

6 Gerald D. Berreman, “Peoples and Cultures of the Himalayas,”Asian Survey, Vol. 3 (1963), pp. 289 304.

7 Marie-Thérése de Mallmann, Arts du Tibet et des regions Himaläyennes,”Arts Asiatiques, Vol. 21 (1970) pp. 71 89; Madanjeet Singh, “Mystique of Himalayan Art,”Indian and Foreign Review, Vol. 12 (1975), pp. 13 17; idem, “Unknown Treasures of Himalayan Art,”Unesco Courier, Vol. 22 (February, 1969), pp. 14 25; idem, Himalayan Art (Greenwich, Conn.: New York Graphic Society Ltd., 1968).

8 For details, see S. C. Bose, Land and People of the Himalayas (Calcutta: Indian Publications, 1968). For the relationship between ideology and landscape in Tibet, see P. P. Karan, The Changing Face of Tibet: The Impact of Chinese Communist Ideology on the Landscape (Lexington, Ky.: University Press of Kentucky, 1976).

9 H. Bhattacharya, Cultural Heritage of India (Hollywood, California: Vedanta Press, 1961).

10 P. Carrasco, Land and Polity in Tibet (Seattle: University of Washington, 1959), pp. 4–5.

11 W. C. Smith, Modern Islam in India: A Social Analysis (New York: Russell and Russell, 1972).

12 C. Von Furer-Haimendorf, Himalayan Barbary (New York: Abelard-Schuman, 1956).

13 The ethnography of the Magar people of this region is described in John T. Hitchcock, The Magars of Banyan Hill (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1966). The distinctive folk art of the Newar inhabitants of this area is described by Susan Peterson, “Folk Art of Nepal,”Craft Horizons, Vol. 27 (March–April, 1967), pp. 36 39.

14 Taranatha, Taranatha's Geschichte des Buddhismus in Indien. Aus dem tibetischen uebersetzit von Anton Schiefner (St. Petersburg, Russia: Eggers, 1869). The original Tibetan manuscript was held at St. Petersburg; a facsimile copy of the Tibetan text in the library of the Namgyal Institute of Tibetology was consulted in this research.

15 The Arts of India and Nepal: The Nasli and Alice Heeramaneck Collection (published by October House Inc. for Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass., 1966), pp. 100–03.

16 Blanche Christine Olschak in collaboration with Geshe Thupten Wangyal, Mystic Arts of Ancient Tibet (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1973). For an example of secular Tibetan art, in contrast to the religious style, with its strict iconographical norms, see B. C. Olschak, “The Art of Healing in Ancient Tibet,”Ciba Symposium, Vol. 12 (1964), pp. 129 34.

17 F. Sierksma, Tibet's Terrifying Deities: Sex and Aggression in Religious Acculturation (The Hague: Mouton, 1966).

18 D. Barrett, “The Buddhist Art of Tibet and Nepal,”Oriental Art, Vol. 3 (1957), pp. 90 95; S. Kramrisch, “Art of Nepal and Tibet,”Philadelphia Museum of Art Bulletin (Spring, 1960), pp. 23–38.

19 R. Bartholomew, “Tibetan Thangkas,”The Times of India Annual (1967), p. 30; Valrae Reynolds, “Thangka Art,”Art News, Vol. 73 (March 1974), pp. 109 11. For psychological interpretations of artistic productions, see A. Bader, “Psychotics and Their Paintings: The Human Soul Laid Bare,”Ciba Symposium, Vol. 6 (1958), pp. 152 55; and G. Clauser, “Painting as a Remedial Factor in Psychotherapy,”Ciba Symposium, Vol. 8 (1960), pp. 13 22.

20 The symbolism of the mandala is discussed in G. Tucci, The Theory and Practice of the Mandala, with Special Reference to the Modern Psychology of the Subconscious (London: Rider, 1961); D. Snellgrove, Buddhist Himalaya (Oxford: Bruno Cassirer, 1957), p. 154.

21 R. K. Kaushal, Himachal Pradesh: A Survey of the History of the Land and its People (Bombay: Minerva Book Shop, 1965), pp. 77–80; M. S. Randhawa, “Vaishnavism Inspiration of Rajput Painting,” Marg, Vol. 17 (June, 1964), pp. 4–7.

22 A. Coomaraswamy, Rajput Painting (New York: Oxford University Press, 1916), p. 14.

23 C. M. N. Sahay, “Indian Miniature Painting,”Arts of Asia, Vol. 4 (1974), pp. 25 41. The word ‘miniature’ in this context refers to size which may range up to a full page folio.

24 W. G. Archer, Indian Painting in the Punjab Hills, Victoria and Albert Museum Monograph, No. 3 (London: His Majesty's Stationery Office, 1952); idem, Pahari Miniatures: A Concise History,”Marg, Vol. 28 (March, 1975), pp. 3 44.

25 V. S. Agrawala, “The Romance of Himachal Painting,”Roop Lekha, Vol. 20 (1948–49), pp. 89 90. M. S. Randhawa, Kangra Valley Painting (New Delhi: Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, 1954), p. 4.

26 Interview with Sri Sitaram Misra, B. L. Yadav, and Ram Lochan Misra at Janakpur, Nepal.

27 C. Y. Gopinath, “Madhubani Paintings—An Ancient Art Form,”Indian and Foreign Review, Vol. 12 (June 1, 1975) pp. 13 16.

28 Verrier Elwin, The Art of the Northeast Frontier of India (Shillong: North-east Frontier Agency Administration, 1959).

29 Ragini Devi, Dance Dialects of India (Delhi: Vikas Publications, 1972); R. S. Gupta, “Language of Dance in India,”Indian and Foreign Review, Vol. 9 (January 1, 1972), pp. 18 20.

30 For a brief discussion of regionalism in Indian dance, see Kapila Vatsyayan, “Indian Dance,”Arts of Asia, Vol. 4 (1974), pp. 48 55.

31 S. G. Burman, “NEFA (North East Frontier Agency)—The Land and Its Peoples,”India Quarterly, Vol. 19 (1963), pp. 344 69.

32 G. Tucci, Tibet: Land of Snows (New York: Stein and Day, 1967), pp. 133–34; Siegbert Hummel, “Boy Dances at the New Year's Festival in the Region of Dri-cu-ron, North Nepal,”East and West, Vol. 24. New Series Nos. 3–4 (1974), pp. 363–64.

33 For examples of folk dances from the Islamic area, see Reginald Massey, “Dancers from Pakistan,”Dancing Times, Vol. 65 (1975), p. 535.

34 Emmie Te Nijenhuis, Indian Music: History and Structure (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1974); Walter Kaufman, The Ragas of North India (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968).

35 Gerald D. Berremen, Hindus of the Himalaya: Ethnography and Change (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1972), p. 262.

36 Prem Lata Sharma, “The Origin of Thumri,” in Aspects of Indian Music, 2nd rev. ed. (New Delhi: 1970), pp. 73–85.

37 A. A. Blake, “Kirtan in Bengal,”Indian Art and Letters, New Series, Vol. 21 (1947), pp. 34–40.

38 Pratapaditya Pal, Ragamala Paintings in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (Boston: Museum of Fine Arts, 1967).

39 Jaideva Singh, “The Evolution of Khayal,” in Aspects of Indian Music, 2nd rev. ed. (New Delhi: 1970), pp. 86–96.

40 Giuseppe Tucci, Tibetan Folk Songs from Gyantse and Western Tibet, 2nd rev. ed. (Ascona, Switzerland: Artibus Asiae Publishers, 1966).

41 Pratapaditya Pal, “Bronzes of Nepal,”Arts of Asia, Vol. 4 (1974), pp. 31 37; Pushpa Sundar, “Wood Carving,”Indian Horizon, Vol. 23 (1974), pp. 33 39. For a discussion of regional varieties in toys, a highly developed folk art, which reflect geographical and cultural influences, see Anne Winter, “India's Toys: In Variety and Style, They Reflect Every Facet of This Complex Culture,”Craft Horizons, Vol. 16 (December, 1956), pp. 32 36.

42 John Erwin and Margaret Hall, Indian Embroideries (Ahmedabad: Calico Museum of Textiles, 1975); Mulk Raj Anand, “Embroidery,”Marg, Vol. 28 (December, 1974), pp. 30 33; Kamala Dongerkery, “Place of Embroidery in Indian Crafts,”Marg, Vol. 17 (March, 1964), pp. 69 70; Kamaladevi Chattopadhyaya, “Origin and Development of Embroidery in Our Land,”Marg, Vol. 17 (March, 1964), pp. 5 10.

43 Nelly H. Sethna, Shal: Weaves and Embroideries of Kashmir (New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Private Limited, 1973).

44 James Dickie, “The Iconography of the Prayer Rug,”Oriental Art, Vol. 18 (1972), pp. 41 49.

45 “Chamba Rumal,”Marg, Vol. 17 (March, 1964), pp. 19–21.

46 “Bagh and Phulkari: Punjab,”Marg, Vol. 17 (March, 1964), p. 19. For a discussion of the role of symbolical, psychological, and physical factors which influence the use of colors in textile handicrafts in various parts of India and Himalaya, see Nancy Kenealy, “India's Crafts Today: Color,”Craft Horizons, Vol. 19 (July-August, 1959), pp. 29 30.

47 B. K. Barua, “Weaving in Assam,”The Assam Quarterly, Vol. 2 (April, 1962), pp. 45 49.

48 B. C. Olschak, “Bhutanese Weaving,”Palette (Sandoz, Basel), No. 24 (1966), pp. 3–8.

49 Philip Denwood, The Tibetan Carpet (Warminster, England: Aris and Philips Ltd., 1974).

50 B. C. Olschak, “Tibetan Carpets,”Palette (Sandoz, Basel), No. 27 (1967), p. 7. page miss.

51Mary Shepard and Gantamavajra Vijracarya, “Two Medieval Nepalese Buildings: An Architectural and Cultural Study”, Artibus, Vol. 36 (1974), pp. 169-218. For details of Indian Temple styles, see K. V. Sundra Rajan, Indian Temple Styles: The personality of Hindu Architecture (Delhi: Munshila Manoharlal, 1972).

52 For details on regionalism in architecture, see H. Sanyal, “Regional Religious Architecture in Bengal: A Study in the Sources of Origin and Character,”Marg, Vol. 27 (March, 1974), pp. 31 43.

53 Often the images of Vishnu are set in a tank—a unique architecture of water which in areas of Hindu cultural influence underwent elaborate development into forms combining beauty and utility. John Nicolais, “Water Architecture of the Kathmandu Valley,”Arts of Asia, Vol. 4 (September-October, 1974), pp. 62 67.

54 P. Pal, The Art of Tibet (New York: The Asia Society, 1969), p. 44; Philip Denwood, “Bhutanese Architecture,”Asian Affairs, Vol. 58 (February, 1971), pp. 24 33; Gelongma Karma Kechiog Palmo, “Mantras on the Prayer Flag,”Kailash: A Jounal of Himalayan Studies, Vol. 1 (1973), pp. 168 69.

55 For the role of environment in the Mogul landscape architecture, see Mulk Raj Anand, “The Treatment of Environment by the Mughals,”Marg, Vol. 26 (December, 1972), pp. 3 8.