Exchange Processes in History: Integrating the Micro and Macro Levels of Analysis

Abstract

The existing form of social exchange theory has serious flaws. Yet, this article argues that exchange theory should and can be a powerful tool for analysis at both the micro and macro levels. A model of exchange is developed that: (1) includes temporality; (2) includes both positive and negative sanctions; (3) defines rationality and voluntariness in such a way as to account for long-term, stable systems of unequal exchange; and (4) links the micro and macro levels of analysis. Selective historical materials are introduced to analyze the problem of routine, peaceful, unequal exchange between Romans and barbarians inside the Roman Empire. In interpersonal exchange, it shows, all the terms of exchange are not negotiated by the partners to exchange. Governing rules have been established by collective actors at the macro level for social exchange at the micro level. Traditional exchange theory has failed to identify the historically distant conflict of macro level actors over governing rules.