Inhibition of IκB Kinase by a New Class of Retinoid-Related Anticancer Agents That Induce Apoptosis

Abstract

The transcription factor NF-κB is overexpressed or constitutively activated in many cancer cells, where it induces expression of antiapoptotic genes correlating with resistance to anticancer therapies. Small molecules that inhibit the NF-κB signaling pathway could therefore be used to induce apoptosis in NF-κB-overexpressing tumors and potentially serve as anticancer agents. We found that retinoid antagonist MX781 inhibited the activation of NF-κB-dependent transcriptional activity in different tumor cell lines. MX781 was able to completely inhibit tumor necrosis factor alpha-mediated activation of IκB kinase (IKK), the upstream regulator of NF-κB. Inhibition of IKK activity resulted from direct binding of MX781 to the kinase, as demonstrated by in vitro inhibition studies. Two other molecules, MX3350-1 and CD2325, which are retinoic acid receptor gamma-selective agonists, were capable of inhibiting IKK in vitro, although they exerted variable inhibition of IKK and NF-κB activities in intact cells in a cell type-specific manner. However, N-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-retinamide, another apoptosis-inducing retinoid, and retinoic acid as well as other nonapoptotic retinoids did not inhibit IKK. Inhibition of IKK by the retinoid-related compounds and other small molecules correlated with reduced cell proliferation and increased apoptosis. Reduced cell viability was also observed after overexpression of an IKKβ kinase-dead mutant or the IκBα superrepressor. The induction of apoptosis by the retinoid-related molecules that inhibited IKK was dependent on caspase activity but independent of the retinoid receptors. Thus, the presence of an excess of retinoic acid or a retinoid antagonist did not prevent the inhibition of IKK activation by MX781 and CD2325, indicating a retinoid receptor-independent mechanism of action.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Research support was provided by grants from the NIH (CA 75033 to F.J.P., CA 55681 to M.P., and AI 43477 to M.K.) and the California Cancer Research Program (00-00778V-20253 to F.J.P. and 99-00529V-10249 to M.K.). Y.B. was partially supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from the Basque Government of Spain.

We thank Renata Hasim for technical assistance, Mireille Delhase for the IKK expression vectors, and Galderma Research Inc. for providing retinoids. We also thank Marion Sauter and Shamim Sheikh for secretarial assistance.