![Sample our Arts journals, sign in here to start your access, latest two volumes FREE to you for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/110799/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Arts.jpg"})
Notes
1 I would like to gratefully acknowledge my debt to a number of people for their help in making this paper better. They include Robert E. Hegel, my graduate advisor; David Rolston, editor of this journal; and the two anonymous readers. I very much appreciate their careful reading, suggestions, and criticism.
2 Arthur Waley, Yuan Mei: Eighteenth Century Chinese Poet (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1956), p. 72, refers to him as “the best-known dramatist of the eighteenth century.”
3 Qu can refer to either the particular poetic form used for the arias of northern and southern drama (beiqu/nanqu 北曲/南曲), or to the plays themselves.
4 These three quotations are collected in Jiang Shiquan yanjiu ziliao ji 蔣士銓研究資料集 (Collected research material on Jiang Shiquan; Nanchang: Jiangxi renmin, 1985), pp. 152, 155–56, and 153, and in the more easily available Xu Guohua 徐國華, Jiang Shiquan yanjiu 蔣士銓研究 (Research on Jiang Shiquan; Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 2010), p. 235. The first work was compiled by the Chinese Department of Shangrao shizhuan 上饒師專 (Shangrao Normal College), which is located near Jiang Shiquan's hometown and was an early center of scholarly publication on him beginning in the 1980s.
5 For a review of Chinese language scholarship on Jiang Shiquan, see the appendix on this subject in Xu Guohua, Jiang Shiquan yanjiu, pp. 233–50.
6 Edition of reference is Shao Haiqing 邵海清, ed. and annot., Linchuan meng 臨川夢 (Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1989). Parenthetical page references will be to this edition, with scene and page numbers separated by a period. The Hongxue lou 紅雪樓 woodblock edition of the play contains marginal comments by Jiang's friend Qian Shixi 錢世錫 (1733–1795). A copy is reproduced in Bu deng da ya wenku zhenben xiqu congkan 不登大雅文庫珍本戲曲叢刊 (Collection of rare copies of Chinese drama from the ‘Not Fit to Enter the Main Hall Library’), 24 vols. (Beijing: Xueyuan chuban she, 2003), 20: 199–390. Citations will include original pagination (scene and page number separated by a slash) and the modern added pagination. In the woodblock edition, the twenty scenes of the play are divided into two fascicles (juan 卷) with ten scenes each. A different photo-reprint is available in Hongxue lou jiuzhong qu 紅雪樓九種曲 (Nine plays from Hongxue lou; Taibei: Yiwen yinshu guan, 1971).
7 In traditional Chinese reckoning, in which one is considered one year old at birth; same below.
8 See Xu Guohua, Jiang Shiquan yanjiu, “Jiang Shiquan nianpu xinbian” 蔣士銓年譜新編 (Newly compiled chronological biography for Jiang Shiquan), entry for 1751, p. 262.
9 See Jiang Shiquan yanjiu ziliao ji, p. 152 and Xiong Chengyu 熊澄宇, Jiang Shiquan juzuo yanjiu 蔣士銓劇作研究 (Research on Jiang Shiquan's playwriting; Beijing: Zhongguo xiju, 1988), p. 30.
10 See Xu Guohua 徐國華, “Qingdai pianwen pingdian dajia—Jiang Shiquan” 清代駢文 評點大家—蔣士銓 (Great critic of parallel prose of the Qing dynasty—Jiang Shiquan), Gudian wenxue zhishi 古典文學知識 (Knowledge of classical literature) 2003.6: 87–92.
11 They are available in Zhou Miaozhong 周妙中, ed., Jiang Shiquan xiqu ji 蔣士銓戲曲集 (Collected plays of Jiang Shiquan; Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1993).
12 The entry on him by Yu Weimin 俞為民 in Wu Xinlei 吳新雷, ed., Kunju da cidian 崑劇大辭典 (Dictionary of Kunqu; Nanjing: Nanjing daxue, 2002), p. 469, only lists one item from his plays that made it into the zhezi xi 折子戲 (extracted highlight scene) repertoire.
13 See Jian Youyi 簡有儀, Jiang Shiquan ji qi shiwen yanjiu: Mantan Qingdai da wenhao Jiang Shiquan zhi wenxue chengjiu yu yingxiang 蔣士銓及其詩文研究: 漫談清代大文豪蔣 士銓之文學成就與影響 (Research on Jiang Shiquan and his poetry and prose: On the literary accomplishments and influence of the Qing dynasty literary giant Jiang Shiquan; Taibei: Hongye wenhua, 2001), p. 35; the items for 1739–1742 in Xu Guohua, “Jiang Shiquan nianpu xinbian,” pp. 258–59; and Shao Haiqing 邵海清, “Jiang Shiquan nianbiao” 蔣士銓年表 (Chronological chart for Jiang Shiquan), in Jiang Shiquan yanjiu ziliao ji, p. 5.
14 Translated into German in Alfred Forke, Zwei chinesische Singspiele der Qing-Dynastie (Li Yu und Jiang Shiquan) (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 1993), pp. 359–448.
15 Zhou Miaozhong, ed., Jiang Shiquan xiqu ji, p. 182.
16 Waley, Yuan Mei, p. 73. Tang Xianxu is called a “banished immortal” (zhexian 謫仙) in Linchuan meng (cf. 17.160).
17 See, for instance, Liu Dajie 劉大傑, Zhongguo wenxue fazhan shi 中國文學發展史 (The history of the development of Chinese literature; Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1982), pp. 1312–14.
18 Waley, Yuan Mei, p. 73.
19 On this, see Xu Ke 徐珂 (1869–1928), Qubai 曲稗 (Miscellanous records of plays), quoted in Jiang Shiquan yanjiu ziliao ji, p. 160, and Shao Haiqing, ed. and annot., Linchuan meng, p. 235.
20 On the parallels between Jiang and Tang, see Xiong Chengyu, Jiang Shiquan juzuo yanjiu, pp. 74–77.
21 Liang Qichao's 梁啟超 (1873–1929) comment in Xiaoshuo conghua 小說叢話 (Collected talks on fiction; 1906) on Jiang's use of Yu Ergu in the play was “This was no more than making a portrait of himself in order to completely express his reverence for Tang Xianzu” 此不過為自己寫照, 極表景仰臨川之熱誠而已. See Jiang Shiquan yanjiu ziliao, 192; and Liang Qichao 梁啟超, Yinbing shi heji jiwai wen 飲冰室合集集外文 (Uncollected works of Liang Qichao), Xia Xiaohong 夏晓虹, ed. (Beijing: Beijing daxue, 2005), p. 152.
22 On the rise of autobiographical tendencies among Qing dramatists and novelists, see Wang Ailing 王璦玲 (Wang Ay-ling), “Siqing hua gong: Qingdai juzuojia zhi ziwo xuxie ji qi xiju zhanxian” 私情化公: 清代劇作家之自我敍寫及其戲劇展現 (Private emotions made public: Self-narration by Qing dynasty dramatists and its theatrical presentation), in Xiong Bingzhen 熊秉真, ed., Yu yan mi zhang: Zhongguo lishi wenhua zhong de “si” yu “qing”—Si qing pian 欲掩彌張: 中國歷史文化中的私與情—私情篇 (The more concealed the more revealed: Si [private] and qing in the historical culture of China—Volume on si and qing; Taibei: Hanxue yanjiu zhongxin, 2003), pp. 81–155; Chen Leilei 陳磊磊, “Qingdai ‘zikuang’ xiqu chuangzuo yanjiu” 清代 ‘自况’ 戲曲創作研究 (Research on ‘self-representation’ in Qing dynasty drama), MA thesis, Jinan daxue, 2013; Martin W. Huang, Literati and Self-Re/presentation: Autobiographical Sensibility in the Eighteenth Century Chinese Novel (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995); Stephen J. Roddy, Literati Identity and Its Fictional Representations in Late Imperial China (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998); and Wang Jinju 王進駒, Qianlong shiqi zikuangxing changpian xiaoshuo yanjiu 乾隆時期自況性長篇小説研究 (Research on self-referential novels of the Qianlong era; Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue, 2006).
23 Lin Yeqing 林葉青, “Yidai cairen de qingzhi ‘lunluo’ shi—Lun Jiang Shiquan de sanbu wenren gushi ju” 一代才人的情志 ‘淪落’ 史—論蔣士銓的三部文人故事劇 (A history of the disappointed hopes of the talented scholar of a generation—On Jiang Shiquan's three plays on literary men), Yishu baijia 藝術百家 (Various artists) 2001.1: 61–66, focuses on the relationship of these three plays to events in Jiang's life.
24 See Shuen-fu Lin, “Looking for Friends in History: Li Po's Friendship with Hsieh T'iao,” Tamkang Review 20.2 (Winter 1989): 132–49.
25 Yoshikawa Kojiro, Five Hundred Years of Chinese Poetry, 1150–1650, trans. John Timothy Wixted (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989), p. 57; Wen Tianxiang quanji 文天祥全集 (The complete writings of Wen Tianxiang; Beijing: Zhongguo shudian, 1985), p. 16.397.
26 For these two biographies, see Mao Xiaotong 毛效同, ed., Tang Xianzu yanjiu ziliao huibian 湯顯祖研究資料彙編 (Collected research material on Tang Xianzu; Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1986), pp. 91–92 and 85–87, respectively. Jiang's biography of Tang is moved to the back matter in Shao Haiqing, ed. and annot., Linchuan meng, pp. 214–15.
27 See Mao Xiaotong, ed., Tang Xianzu yanjiu ziliao huibian, pp. 80–84.
28 See the note on Jiang's biography indicating the quite limited changes made for the gazetteer version, Mao Xiaotong, ed., Tang Xianzu yanjiu ziliao huibian, p. 94.
29 Shao Haiqing, ed. and annot., Linchuan meng, pp. 213–14 (as with Jiang's biography of Tang, this edition has moved Jiang's preface to the back matter).
30 These two instruments were associated with a more masculine and unrestrained form of song.
31 This refers to Yu Ergu.
32 This memorial is featured in scene 7.
33 Ibid., p. 1. Unlike some chuanqi plays, in Linchuan meng the prologue is not counted among the numbered scenes.
34 Marginal comments refer to the first scene as an indirect depiction (xuxie 虛寫) of Tang as a good official (xunli) and the second scene as a direct depiction (shixie 實寫; pp. 9/37a [295] and 11/2a [309], respectively). The second comment appears after Tang has recited a poem on letting all prisoners go home for the New Year holidays labelled benshi 本詩 to indicate it is by the real Tang Xianzu (see Xu Shuofang, ed., Tang Xianzu quanji, p. 13.543, for the poem) and goes on to say he is now waiting for the prisoners to come back (11.113–14; reportedly, they all came back). At the beginning of Scene 9, Tang mentions that his next post will be Suichang. Students come to see him off and the emphasis is on Tang's ideas and accomplishments with regard to education. Jiang Shiquan taught in academies (shuyuan 書院) from 1765 to 1775, the period during which he wrote Linchuan meng. See Wang Chunxiao王春曉, “Jiang Shiquan zhongnian shuyuan shiqi juzuo yanjiu” 蔣士銓中年書院時期劇作研究 (Research on Jiang Shiquan's plays from his middle-age when he taught in academies), MA thesis, Shoudu shifan daxue, 2008, p. 2.
35 Mei is one of the three staunch friends of Tang Xianzu's who are introduced in Scene 1 and remain important throughout the play. They are also mentioned prominently in Tang's Mingshi biography.
36 See Wei Hua, “Dreams in Tang Xianzu's Plays,” CHINOPERL Papers 16 (1993): 145–63; and Wai-yee Li, Enchantment and Disenchantment: Love and Illusion in Chinese Literature (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), pp. 47–81.
37 Burton Watson, trans., Courtier and Commoner in Ancient China: Selections from The History of the Former Han (New York: Columbia University Press, 1974), p. 249; Ban Gu 班固 Hanshu 漢書 (History of the Han dynasty; Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 1962), “Waiqi liezhuan” 外戚列傳 (Accounts of the families related to the emperors through marriage), p. 97A.3952.
38 For the original preface, see the front matter of Xu Shuofang 徐朔方 and Yang Xiaomei 楊笑梅, eds., Mudan ting (Peony pavilion; Beijing: Renmin wenxue, 1978). On the “sources” Tang lists in his preface, see Wilt L. Idema, “‘What Eyes May Light upon My Sleeping Form?’: Tang Xianzu's Transformation of His Sources, with a Translation of ‘Du Liniang Craves Sex and Returns to Life,’” Asia Major, 3rd series, 16 (2005): 111–45, esp. pp. 118–19 and 124–25. For a translation of all but the last lines of the portion of the preface that deals with qing, see Cyril Birch, trans., The Peony Pavilion, Mudan ting, Second Edition (Bloomingdale: University of Indiana Press, 2002), “Preface to the Second Edition,” p. ix.
39 For the letter itself, see Xu Shuofang 徐朔方, ed., Tang Xianzu quanji 湯顯祖全集 (Complete works of Tang Xianzu; Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1998), p. 44.1289–91.
40 The entire memorial is quoted in the front matter of the woodblock edition (pp. 4a–10b [209–20]), after Jiang's biography of Tang. It is not reproduced in Shao Haiqing, ed. and annot., Linchuan meng.
41 For the essay, see Xu Shuofang, ed., Tang Xianzu quanji, p. 37.1225–26.
42 Here and below, characters marked as extrametricals (chenzi 襯字) in the original by being printed in smaller size are likewise set using a smaller font in both the translation and the quotation of the Chinese original.
43 In prose comments that have been left out, Tang's wife says that Scenes 28 and 32 are sadder than Scenes 10 and 12.
44 The deity in Scene 19 is much harsher. When Huo Xiaoyu asks him why she had to suffer “retribution from his [Li Yi's] rejection” (shou bi fuxin zhi bao 受彼負心之報), he says it was because their parents were not involved in their marriage and thus it was not proper (19.184–85). A marginal comment at this point declares: “[This] props up the cardinal human relations and upholds Confucianism, who says it is [nothing but] a play?” 扶植人倫主持名教, 誰云是戲 (19/35a–b [375–76]).
45 In the Qing, it became common for chuanqi playwrights to collaborate with people more skilled in setting the texts to music than themselves. In the case of a number of Jiang Shiquan's plays, including Linchuan meng, various people are credited for “correcting the match between text and music” (zhengpu 正譜).
46 Zhang Dafu 張大復, Meihua caotang bitan 梅花草堂筆談 (Shanghai: Shanghai zazhi, 1935), p. 147; reproduced in Xu Fuming 徐扶明, ed., Mudan ting yanjiu ziliao kaoshi 牡丹亭研究資料考釋 (Research material on Mudan ting investigated and explained; Shanghai: Shanghai guji, 1987), p. 213.
47 Xu Shuofang, ed., Tang Xianzu quanji, pp. 710–11.
48 On her, see Wang Rong 王榮, “Ming-Qing xiqu zhong Feng Xiaoqing ticai zuopin yanjiu” 明清戲曲中馮小青題材作品研究 (Research on plays on Feng Xiaoqing of the Ming and Qing dynasties), MA thesis, Anhui daxue, 2009, and Ellen Widmer, “Xiaoqing's Literary Legacy and the Place of the Woman Writer in Late Imperial China,” Late Imperial China 13.1 (June 1992): 111–55. For translations of some of the poetry attributed to Xiaoqing, and particularly one that describes her reading of Mudan ting, see Wilt L. Idema and Beata Grant, The Red Brush: Writing Women of Imperial China (Cambridge: Harvard University Asia Center, 2004), pp. 509–11.
49 A marginal comment says, concerning her wish to seek out Tang Xianzu, “It is precisely in this that she is not of the same opinion as Xiaoqing and her ilk” 方不是小青一流人見解 (4/15a [251]). In Scene 10, Ergu's nurse stresses that Ergu has become ill because of her “thoughts for” (gannian 感念) Tang Xianzu and claims that “She was never one to know anything about being ‘spring-struck’ [this is what happens to Du Liniang in Scene 10 of Mudan ting]” 他從來不解傷春 (10.103).
50 On Tanyangzi, see these articles by Ann Waltner: “Visionary and Bureaucrat in Late Ming: T'an-yang-tzu and Wang Shih-chen,” Late Imperial China 8 (1987): 105–27; “Learning from a Woman: Ming Literati Responses to Tanyangzi,” International Journal of Social Education 6.1 (1991): 42–59; “Telling the Story of Tanyangzi,” in Xiong Bingzhen, ed., Yu yan mi zhang, pp. 213–41; and “Life and Letters: Reflections on Tanyangzi,” in Joan Judge and Hu Ying, eds., Beyond Exemplar Tales: Women's Biography in Chinese History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2011), pp. 212–19.
51 Birch, trans., The Peony Pavilion, “Preface to Second Edition,” p. ix; Xu Shuofang and Yang Xiaomei, eds., Mudan ting, front matter.
52 Hua-yuan Li Mowry, Chinese Love Stories from “Ch'ing-shih” (Hamden, CN: Archon Books, 1983), p. 13; Feng Menglong 馮夢龍, comp. and comment., Qingshi 情史 (History of qing; Hangzhou: Zhejiang guji, 1998), p. 1.
53 See Catherine Crutchfield Swatek, “Feng Menglong's Romantic Dream: Strategies of Containment in his Revision of Mudan ting,” doctorial diss., Columbia University, 1990. In Linchuan meng (18.167), Tang Xianzu's mother mentions seeing an edition of Mudan ting from Suzhou that had been “cut and revised a lot” (shangai le xuduo 刪改了許多), but not enough detail is given to identify which revision of the play she is talking about.
54 Mao Xiaotong, ed., Tang Xianzu yanjiu ziliao huibian, p. 857; see also Luo Zongqiang 羅宗強, Mingdai wenxue sixiang shi 明代文學思想史 (The history of Ming literary thought; Beijing: Zhonghua shuju, 2013), esp. pp. 846–56.
55 See Wu Yuhua 吳毓華, “Qing de guannian zai wan Ming de yibian” 情的觀念在晚明的異變 (The transformation of the concept of qing in the late Ming), Xiju yishu 戲劇藝術 (Dramatic arts) 1993.4: 94–98; and Wang Ailing 王璦玲 (Wang Ay-ling), “Wan Ming Qing chu xiqu shenmei yishi zhong de qingli guan zhi zhuanhua ji qi yiyi” 晚明清初戲曲審美意識中的情理觀之轉化及其意義 (Changes in the conceptualization of qing and li in the aesthetics of late Ming and early Qing drama and their significance), Zhongguo wenzhe yanjiu jikan 中國文哲研究集刊 (Bulletin of the Institute of Chinese Literature and Philosophy) 19 (Sept. 2001): 183–250, esp. 223–44.
56 See, for instance, Hua Wei 華瑋, “Caizi Mudan ting zhi qingse lunshu ji qi wenhua yihan” 才子牡丹亭之情色論述及其文化意涵 (The discourse on qing and se in Caizi Mudan ting and its cultural implications), in Xiong Bingzhen 熊秉真 and Lü Miaofen 呂妙芬, eds., Lijiao yu qingyu: Qian jindai Zhongguo wenhua zhong de hou/xiandaixing 禮教與情欲: 前近代中國文化中的後/現代性 (The Confucian ethical code and desire: Postmodern and modern aspects of early modern Chinese culture; Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan Jindaishi yanjiusuo, 1999), pp. 213–49; idem, Ming Qing funü zhi xiqu chuangzuo yu piping 明清婦女之戲曲創作與批評 (Dramatic composition and criticism by women in the Ming and Qing dynasties; Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan Zhongguo wenzhe yanjiusuo, 2003), pp. 319–27; idem, “How Dangerous Can the Peony Be: Textual Space, Caizi Mudan ting, and Naturalizing the Erotic,” Journal of Asian Studies 65.4 (November 2006): 741–62; and Judith T. Zeitlin, “Shared Dreams: The Story of the Three Wives Commentary on The Peony Pavilion,” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 54 (1994): 127–79.
57 Birch, trans., The Peony Pavilion, p. 49; Xu Shuofang and Yang Xiaomei, eds., Mudan ting, p. 45.
58 Birch, trans., The Peony Pavilion, p. 1, with modifications; Xu Shuofang and Yang Xiaomei, eds., Mudan ting, p. 1.
59 Ōki Yasushi 大木康, “Jiang Shiquan bixia de Tang Xianzu yu Jiangnan wenren: Du Linchuan meng” 蔣士銓筆下的湯顯祖與江南文人: 讀臨川夢 (Jiang Shiquan's Tang Xianzu and Jiangnan literati: Reading Linchuan meng), in Hua Wei 華瑋, ed., Tang Xianzu yu Mudan ting 湯顯祖與牡丹亭 (Tang Xianzu and Mudan ting; Taibei: Zhongyang yanjiuyuan Wenzhe yanjiusuo, 2005), p. 635, briefly mentions this play-within-play motif in Linchuan meng, but primarily in a defense of the play against Aoki Masaru's 青木正兒 (1887–1964) criticism of it.
60 The text (18.170) emphasizes that it is the original arias from Handan meng that are used by labelling them as Handan yuanqu 邯鄲原曲 (original arias from Handan meng). The play is performed by four named actors who have come from Yihuang (18.177 n49 identifies three of them [and possibly the fourth as well] as appearing in Tang Xianzu's poetry). Shang Wei, in the “Jiang Shiquan and his Dreams of Linchuan” section of his “The Literati Era and Its Demise” in Kang-i Sun Chang and Stephen Owen, eds., The Cambridge History of Chinese Literature, 2 vols. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 2: 309–10, discusses the play's “innovative use of metafictional devices.”
61 The scene echoes Scene 23 of Mudan ting in that it is dominated by a northern song-suite sung by one character, and that it tries, in some respects, to top Tang's scene.
62 The appendices in Liao Tengye 寥藤葉, Zhongguo mengxi yanjiu 中國夢戲研究 (Research on Chinese plays involving dreams; Taibei: Xuesi chuban she, 2000), provide lists of such plays from the Song and Yuan period (pp. 325–28), the Ming (pp. 329–49) and Qing (pp. 350–59).
63 Tang Xianzu's version of Scene 10 does not have such a figure, but the performance tradition added one. He uses a pair of mirrors, one with a sun on it and the other a moon, to lead Liu and Du to center stage, where they meet. On the staging of Scene 10 in the performance tradition, see Mei Lanfang 梅蘭芳, “Wode dianying shenghuo” 我的電影生活 (My life in film; originally serially published in Xiju bao 戲劇報 [Theater] in 1961), and “Youyuan jingmeng” 遊園驚夢 (A stroll in the garden and the interrupted dream; originally published as section 8 in chapter 10 of volume 1 of his Wutai shenghuo sishi nian 舞臺生活四十年 [Forty years of life on the stage]), in Mao Xiaotong, ed., Tang Xianzu yanjiu ziliao huibian, pp. 1151 and 1218, respectively. On dream spirits/demons and the mirrors they use, see Liao Tengye, Zhongguo mengxi yanjiu, pp. 120–28.
64 A marginal comment declares “Lust is reincarnation” 情欲既是輪迴 (16/20b–21a [346–47]).
65 There seems to be a pun involving both the idea of jumping out of the dream and producing one.
66 In this scene he is referred to in the stage directions and by himself as shuishen 睡神 and is played by an actor of fujing 副凈 roles, but is presumably the same character as the shuimo that appears in Scene 4. In texts of the performance tradition of Scene 20 of Mudan ting, he is typically called shuimo shen 睡魔神.
67 Burton Watson, trans., The Complete Works of Chuang Tzu (New York: Columbia University Press, 1968), pp. 47–48; Guo Qingfan 郭慶藩, ed., Zhuangzi jishi 莊子集釋 (Collected explanations of Zhuangzi), Zhuzi jicheng 諸子集成 edition, pp. 49–50.
68 Karl S. Y. Kao, “A Tower of Myriad Mirrors: Theory and Practice of Narrative in the Hsi-yu Pu,” in Tse-tsung Chow, ed., Wen-lin: Chinese Studies in the Humanities, Vol. 1 (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1968), pp. 233–35.
69 Richard Hornby, Drama, Metadrama, and Perception (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press, 1986), p. 45.