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Abstract
This article is a think-piece, exploring the potential for developing inter-operable systems or unitary databases for collecting, storing, analysing, and cross-referencing various historical bibliometric data. It particularly focuses on the conceptual development, use, and benefits of such a database or databases in library history. The author surveys a range of leading digital library history and book history projects, establishing their uses and commonalities, before exploring how far the tools for developing a common database system are already being developed out of his ‘French Book Trade in Enlightenment Europe’ (FBTEE) project by a team centred on the University of Western Sydney. In the process he also outlines much of the current work being done in library history by members of an international research network devoted to community libraries, and lays out a vision and hypothetical case study of how, and with what results, this work could be applied.
Acknowledgements
This article is dedicated to the memory of Christopher Sheppard, Head of Special Collections at the Brotherton Library, University of Leeds, between 1993 and 2013, who contributed to or facilitated so many of my scholarly activities. I wish to acknowledge the contribution of Jason Ensor and Vincent Hiribarren as partners in developing the FBTEE database and of Mark Towsey and Rebecca Bowd for their advice on the original draft, and particularly for pointing me to key literature relating to library history as cited here.
Notes
1 The other students in Thompson’s research team were Sarah Muenzer and Joshua Arens. I thank their mentor, Professor Kyle Roberts, for confirming this information.
2 On Bonnemain’s fingerprint, see Robert Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment: A Publishing History of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1979), pp. 228–30.
3 The story of the book’s provenance was also posted on 14 April 2014 on the ‘Jesuit Libraries Provenance Project’ website at <http://jesuitlibrariesprovenance project.com/2014/04/13/the-mystery-of-the-looted-civil-war-book-solved/> [accessed 20 October 2014].
4 Historical bibliometrics has been defined as the ‘bibliometric study of periodicals and books published in the framework of time and space’ and hence involves the ‘quantitative analysis of publications for the purpose of ascertaining specific kinds of [cultural] phenomena’. See Jean-Pierre V. M. Herubel, ‘Historical Bibliometrics: Its Purpose and Significance to the History of Disciplines’, Libraries & Culture, 34.4 (Autumn 1999), 380–88 (pp. 382, 380).
5 See <http://www.australiancommonreader.com/> [accessed 20 October 2014].
6 I am referring here to a presentation by Mitch Fraas on ‘Expanding the Republic of Letters to India’. For some of the work Mitch Fraas discussed in his paper and his map visualizations on book transfers between Europe and India, see his blog at <http://mappingbooks.blogspot.com.au/> [accessed 20 October 2014].
7 The website for this project at <http://elc.lafayette.edu/data/> appears to be not yet operable but Phillips’s blog entry at <http://sites.lafayette.edu/phillipc/research-projects/easton-library-company/> [accessed 20 October 2014] gives some further details. It is hoped that more data from his very rich and extensive sources will become available soon.
8 For a more detailed discussion of what is meant — or not meant — by the term ‘community libraries’, see the AHRC Community Libraries network home page at <http://communitylibraries.net/about/> [accessed 20 October 2014]. This emphasizes that whatever else they may have been, ‘community libraries’ were not ‘public’ in the modern sense of taxpayer institutions established to loan books (and other resources) to the general public free of charge.
9 The foundational works here are Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983); Jürgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois Society, trans. by Thomas Burger (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989). The historical conception of the Atlantic World has a rather longer and more complex genesis that need not concern us in detail here. Somewhat out of fashion for some decades following the dismantling of R. R. Palmer and Jacques Godechot’s conception of an age of the Atlantic (or democratic) revolutions, first propounded in the late 1950s and early 1960s, it is now once more back in favour among English-speaking historians.
10 For James Caudle and Terry Seymour’s reconstruction of Boswell’s library using the crowd-sourced site ‘LibraryThing’, see <http://www.librarything.com/profile/JamesBoswell> [accessed 20 October 2014].
11 On this project, see the note of acknowledgement above.
12 See the Mapping the Colonial Americas Publishing Project at <http://cds.library.brown.edu/mapping-genres/> [accessed 20 October 2014].
13 The project website is at <http://fbtee.uws.edu.au/main/> [accessed 20 October 2014]. Altogether nineteen individual clients listed in the FBTEE database have the profession bibliothécaire (librarian), though not all were involved with community libraries. Originally funded by the AHRC, the FBTEE project has been supported by further funding from the University of Western Sydney. I am grateful to both these institutions and the University of Leeds for their assistance.
14 The workshop on 12 May 2012 was organized by Rebecca Bowd, a PhD student at the University of Leeds, who was working on the Leeds Library and its collections. The papers from the workshop, which she edited, appeared under the title Books of Every Variety and Taste as a special issue of Library & Information History, 29.3 (2013).
15 I have undertaken the conceptual work to develop FBTEE technologies and data structures in partnership with Jason Ensor and Vincent Hiribarren. Jason has undertaken the technical development of our digital tools. Our work builds on previous discussions at Leeds on project development with my then research assistant Mark Curran and the digital work undertaken there in the first stage of the project by Vincent Hiribarren, Henry (Amyas) Merivale, and Sarah Kattau. I am grateful to all these people for their input into the project and the ideas articulated here. I am also grateful to Louise Seaward and Catherine Bishop for their work on data entry for the second stage of the FBTEE project, and Louise’s role in road-testing our resources in both Leeds and at the University of Western Sydney.
16 A more detailed account of the new technologies was given at the Australian Association for Digital Humanities in Perth, Western Australia, by Jason Ensor and me, entitled ‘Mapping Print, Connecting Cultures’. A revised and expanded version of this paper including additional material from Vincent Hiribarren and Per Henningsgaard will shortly be submitted to a leading digital humanities journal.
17 The FBTEE project hopes to be able to release a completed data model within the next few months.
18 For a list of these papers, see <http://community libraries.net/program-archive/> [accessed 20 October 2014]. Many of the papers presented at all three colloquia of the Community Libraries network are mentioned in notes below.
19 There are distinct advantages to a single data management system for historical bibliometric data across multiple projects as opposed to running discrete but inter-operable projects, particularly where we lack comprehensive curated bibliographic datasets to provide digital standards. Without standard codes, data matches of titles (often not presented in standard forms) or persons (if they lack author VIAF numbers) become time-consuming and many problems can arise. VIAF (Virtual International Authority File) numbers, developed by OCLC (Online Computer Library Center), give access to linked names for the same entity across the world’s major name authority files, including national and regional variations in language, character set, and spelling.
20 <http://jesuitlibrariesprovenanceproject.com/2014/ 04/13/the-mystery-of-the-looted-civil-war-book-solved/> [accessed 20 October 2014].
21 The full text of the inscription appears at ibid. The original item is found in Chicago, Loyola University Library, Special Collections, BX955.R33.
22 Morrison’s biographical details come from the brief life history drawn up to accompany his typescript of Morrison’s diary by Lieutenant Colonel James L. Owens of the US Marine Corps. Owen’s great-aunt Margaret Morrison, no doubt a descendant of John Morrison, donated the original of the diary to the Naval Historical Foundation ‘some time after 1954’. His date of death is not recorded in this source, but is given at <http://jesuitlibrariesprovenanceproject.com/2014/04/13/the-mystery-of-the-looted-civil-war-book-solved/> after information sourced from <http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page= gr&GRid=8203381> [both accessed 20 October 2014].
23 Since the von Ranke edition in Loyola’s collection was a three-volume one, this may indicate that Morrison took the Lives of the Popes and only four other volumes. However, the Loyola University Library catalogue reveals that only volumes 1 and 3 are currently in its Special Collections.
24 Morrison was technically wrong here: von Ranke was born in Saxony, but became a professor in Berlin, the Prussian capital.
25 This extract of the diary is reproduced at <http://jesuitlibrariesprovenanceproject.com/2014/04/13/the-mystery-of-the-looted-civil-war-book-solved/> [accessed 20 October 2014]. The original war diary is held at the Naval Historical Center Library at the Washington Navy Yard, but an online typescript copy can be consulted at <https://dmna.ny.gov/ historic/reghist/civil/infantry/30thInf/30thInf_Diary_Morrison.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2014].
26 Interestingly, Morrison’s interpretation is more generous than those of many of von Ranke’s more educated or committed contemporaries: his history was attacked by Catholics as anti-Catholic and seen as too partial to the Papacy and its religion by many Protestants. Ranke himself was a committed Lutheran, as Morrison’s comments seem to acknowledge.
27 Barbara Tillett, Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records: What is FRBR? A Conceptual Model for the Bibliographic Universe (Washington, DC: Library of Congress, Cataloguing Distribution Service, [n.d.]) available at <http://www.loc.gov/cds/downloads/FRBR.PDF> [accessed 20 October 2014] and originally published in Technicalities, 25.5 (September–October 2003). See also Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records: Final Report / IFLA Study Group on the Functional Requirements for Bibliographic Records, UBCIM Publications, New Series, 19 (Munich: K. G. Saur, 1998), current version available at <http://www.ifla.org/files/assets/cataloguing/frbr/frbr_2008.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2014].
28 The FBTEE system described below is designed particularly for recording quantifiable events relating to works (which it currently calls ‘Superbooks’), editions (‘manifestations’), and individual copies or volumes (‘items’). Its facilities for handling ‘expression’ data are less developed, and are generally handled through notes or authorship details on translators, editors, and secondary authors. This reflects the nature of bibliometric source data, which rarely gives precise details to identify, define, and group together particular expressions, a task which is usually the domain of specialist scholarship. Scholars interested in particular ‘expressions’ of a specific work are usually equipped to be able to identify their ‘manifestations’ for themselves and record or extract the data they need via FBTEE.
29 See Burrows, Ensor, Henningsgaard, and Hiribarren, ‘Mapping Print, Connecting Cultures’.
30 See <http://socialhistory.org/en/projects/global-historical-bibliometrics> and <http://www.ustc.ac.uk/> [accessed 20 October 2014].
31 For the ‘Atlas of Early Printing’, see <http://atlas.lib.uiowa.ed> [accessed 20 October 2014].
32 The various national Reading Experience Databases (for Britain, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the Netherlands) can be accessed via <> [accessed 20 October 2014].
33 Examples besides those already mentioned include the ‘What Middletown Read’ project at <http://www.bsu.edu/libraries/wmr/> [accessed 20 October 2014] or several of the works in progress, including Katie Halsey’s project to digitize the Innerpeffrary Library borrower registers (see <http://www. innerpeffraylibrary.co.uk/borrowers-register.php> [accessed 20 October 2014]).
34 See <http://www.literaturatlas.eu/en/> and <http://www.lancaster.ac.uk/mappingthelakes/> [accessed 20 October 2014].
35 The FBTEE end user licence agreement is available at <http://fbtee.uws.edu.au/main/eula/> [accessed 20 October 2014].
36 Jeremy Caradonna, review of ‘The French Book Trade in Enlightenment Europe, 1769–1794’, French History, 28.2 (2013), at <10.1093/fh/crt025>.
37 Due to the quality of the STN archives, the STN is well known to book historians and has been widely studied, most famously by Robert Darnton. The major monograph studies are L’édition Neuchâteloise au siècle des Lumières: La Société typographique de Neuchâtel (1769–1789), ed. by Robert Darnton and Michel Schlup (Neuchâtel: Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire de Neuchâtel, 2002); Le rayonnement d’une maison d’édition dans l’Europe des Lumières: La Société typographique de Neuchâtel 1769–1789, ed. by Robert Darnton and Michel Schlup (Neuchâtel and Hauterive: BPUN and Gilles Attinger, 2005); Robert Darnton, Forbidden Bestsellers of Pre-Revolutionary France (New York and London: Norton, 1996); Jeffrey Freedman, Books without Borders in Enlightenment Europe: French Cosmopolitanism and German Literary Markets (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012); Robert Darnton, The Literary Underground of the Old Regime (Cambridge, MA, and London: Harvard University Press, 1982). Darnton, The Business of Enlightenment also draws extensively on the STN archive. Two further volumes arising from the FBTEE-1 database project will appear with Bloomsbury in 2015–16: Mark Curran, Selling Enlightenment and Simon Burrows, Enlightenment Bestsellers.
38 On the STN archives, see especially Jacques Rychner, ‘Les archives de la Société typographique de Neuchâtel’, in L’édition Neuchâtelois, ed. by Darnton and Schlup, pp. 179–209.
39 The main data currently being added to the FBTEE database print run data from the Permission Simple registers, Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale, MS Français 22,018 and 22,019 and records concerning the legalization of pirate editions from MS Français 21,831–34. This work has been funded by research funding from the University of Western Sydney. Further book trade sources will be added, but the precise materials chosen are still dependent on grant capture.
40 Various ways of reaching an output figure of approximately 50,000,000 books printed in the French language between 1770 and 1787 are given in Simon Burrows, ‘French Banned Books in International Perspective, 1770–1789’, in Experiencing the French Revolution, ed. by David Andress, SVEC (Oxford: Voltaire Foundation, 2013), pp. 19–45 (pp. 24–25). Broadly similar statistics have also been derived from the ‘Global Historical Bibliometrics’ project mentioned above. Books here are to be broadly understood to comprehend any printed product recorded in our sources — this can often include works traditionally categorized as pamphlets, ephemera, or serials.
41 Our planned use of the Angus and Robertson archive is discussed in more detail in Burrows, Ensor, Henningsgaard, and Hiribarren. Its rich potential for studying the Australian book trade’s international angles has been shown by Jason Ensor, Angus & Robertson and the British Trade in Australian Books, 1930–1970: The Getting of Bookselling Wisdom (London and New York: Anthem, 2012). A grant application to ingest data from the Angus and Robertson archive and other related international publishing houses into a FBTEE-style database is in progress.
42 These six types of data to be captured, stored, measured, and correlated through the system — i.e. data about Publication, Reception, Ownership, Marketing, Policing, and Dissemination of books — are provisionally summarized in the acronym PROMPD.
43 A summary of the available documentation on the Leeds Library website states that the library has ‘printed catalogues of the collection, minute books, subscription ledgers, membership registers, building plans, correspondence and accounting records some of which date back to the very early days of the library. From the late 19th century, records of borrowing also survive.’ The precise date of the founding of the Leeds Medical Library (in or before June 1768) was revealed by the Leeds Library’s most recent historian, Rebecca Bowd, in ‘Useful Knowledge or Polite Learning? A Reappraisal of Approaches to Subscription Library History’, in Library & Information History 29.3, (2013), 182–95 at p. 184. I wish to thank the author of that piece, who is about to submit a PhD on ‘Subscription Libraries and the Development of Urban Culture in the Age of Revolution: the case of Leeds, 1768–1832’, for clarifying that an order book does exist for the nineteenth century but only for the period 1811–1832. There is no acquisitions register for the library in the eighteenth century. For a published catalogue of the early collection, rules and a list of subscribers see: A compleat catalogue of the books in the circulating-library at Leeds; a copy of the laws, as they are now in force; and a list of the subscribers (Leeds: Thomas Wright, 1785). A digital copy of this document can be found in Eighteenth-Century Collections Online.
44 For the most thorough printed study of a set of acquisition records to date, see James Raven, London Booksellers and American Customers: Transatlantic Literary Community and the Charleston Library Society, 1748–1811 (University of South Carolina Press, 2002).
45 On the Parisian system, see Edward Edwards, Memoirs of Libraries: Including a Handbook of Library Economy (London: Trübner & Co., 1859), pp. 781–82. The late Chris Sheppard drew this work to my attention. The main branches of the system (Law, Belles-Lettres, Arts and Sciences, Theology, and History) have been widely used by book historians, and this facilitates comparisons with previous projects.
46 A paper delivered at the 24–25 January 2014 Community Libraries network colloquium at Liverpool by Sean Moore entitled ‘Slavery and the Making of the Early American Library’ examined the provenance of money used to buy subscription library books.
47 In the case of Leeds, Rebecca Bowd is tackling this subject with regard to Leeds in her PhD project. For an interesting approach to mapping library membership networks digitally using the records of the Liverpool Lyceum (formerly the Liverpool Library mentioned below), see John Haggerty and Sheryllynne Haggerty, ‘Visual Analytics of an Eighteenth-Century Business Network’, Enterprise & Society, 11.1 (2010), 1–25.
48 Some digital projects on library borrowings have been mentioned above: the most impressive to date include the ‘Australian Common Reader’ project and ‘What Middletown Read’. Print studies making varied use of borrower records include Paul Kaufman’s Borrowings from the Bristol Library, 1773–1784: A Unique Record of Reading Vogues (Charlottesville, VA: Bibliographical Society of the University of Virginia, 1960); Mark Towsey, ‘First Steps in Associational Reading: Book Use and Sociability at the Wigtown Library, 1795–9’, Papers of the Bibliographical Society of America, 103.4 (2009), 455–95; Juliette Atkinson, ‘The London Library and the Circulation of French Fiction in the 1840s’, Information & Culture: A Journal of History, 48.4 (November–December 2013), 391–418; Isabelle Lehuu, ‘Reconstructing Reading Vogues in the Old South: Borrowings from the Charleston Library Society, 1811–1817’, in The History of Reading, i: International Perspectives, c. 1500–1990, ed. by Shafquat Towheed and W. R. Owens (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2011), pp. 64–83.
49 On Leeds society see for example: R. G. Wilson’s Gentleman Merchants (1971). Work has also been done on subscription libraries aimed at professional groups. Within the Community Libraries network, Rebecca Bowd’s work takes in the Leeds Medical Library, while Sally E. Hadden presented a paper on ‘Lawyers’ Communal Subscription Libraries in Boston, Philadelphia and Charleston’ at the Liverpool colloquium in January 2014.
50 A forthcoming paper by Jason McElligott to be delivered to the Community Libraries network colloquium in London, 22–24 January 2015, will discuss theft from Marsh’s Library in Dublin.
51 A paper delivered by Elizabeth Neiman at the 24–25 January 2014 Community Libraries network colloquium at Liverpool on ‘Circulating Library Authorship and the Minerva Press’ discussed the relationships between libraries, readers, and a publisher of popular novels.
52 On contentious purchases, see K. A. Manley, ‘Jeremy Bentham has been Banned: Contention and Censorship in Private Subscription Libraries before 1825’, in Library & Information History, 29.3 (2013), 170–81. An example of decision relating to a contentious work in the Leeds Library records can be found in 1777, when it was ordered ‘That the book entitled the Mistakes of the Heart and the Pupil Of Pleasure be destroyed by the Committee at their first meeting’. (‘Annual Meeting on 1 September 1777’, in Leeds Library Minute Book for 1768–1799, p. 60). I thank Rebecca Bowd for this reference.
53 Within the Community Libraries network, annotations to library books (in the University of St Andrews library) were addressed in a paper by Matthew Sangster presented at Liverpool in January 2014 entitled ‘Copyright Books and Reading Communities in Eighteenth-Century St Andrews’.
54 For an existing discussion of spatial relationships and the placing of books in public and private library collections, see David Allan, Making British Culture: English Readers and the Scottish Enlightenment, 1740–1830 (London: Routledge, 2008), ch. 5.
55 On the early years of the Leeds Library and the related institutions, see Geoffrey Forster, Alice Hamilton, and Elaine Robinson, ‘A Very Good Public Library’: Early Years of the Leeds Library (Wylam: Allenholme Press, 2001). For the other libraries especially, this work is set to be superseded by Bowd, ‘Subscription Libraries and the Development of Urban Culture’. I wish to thank Rebecca Bowd and Geoffrey Forster for discussing the history of the Leeds Library with me on several occasions over the last six to seven years: any errors here are my own.
56 The usually small-scale, commercial, and often ephemeral nature of the circulating libraries means that surviving records are scant and their histories harder to reconstruct than those for public or subscription libraries. See, however, K. A. Manley, ‘Booksellers, Peruke-Makers, and Rabbit-Merchants: The Growth of Circulating Libraries in the Eighteenth Century’, in Libraries and the Book Trade: The Formation of Collections from the Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century, ed. by Robin Myers, Michael Harris, and Giles Mandelbrote (New Castle, DE: Oak Knoll Press, 2000), pp. 29–50; and, for a rare study on borrowing from commercial libraries, Jan Fergus, Provincial Readers in Eighteenth-Century England (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006). The January 2015 colloquium of the Community Libraries network includes a panel on ‘Commercial Libraries, Booksellers and the Community’ involving Norbert Schürer, Stephen Colclough, and Marina Garone Gravier.
57 Bowd, ‘Useful Knowledge or Polite Learning?’, p. 189.
58 For libraries in Sheffield and the borrowing habits of Hunter, see Stephen M. Colclough, ‘Procuring Books and Consuming Texts: The Reading Experience of a Sheffield Apprentice, 1798’, Book History, 3 (2000), 21–44; see also Stephen M. Colclough, Consuming Texts: Readers and Reading Communities, 1695–1870 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2007). Library provision in Sheffield will also be discussed by Sue Roe and Loveday Herridge at the January 2015 London colloquium of the Community Libraries network.
59 For the most recent treatment of these libraries, see David Allan, ‘Eighteenth-Century Private Subscription Libraries and Provincial Urban Culture: The Amicable Society of Lancaster, 1769–c. 1820’, Library History, 17.1 (March 2001), 57–76; Neville Carrick and Edward L. Ashton, The Athenaeum Liverpool, 1797–1997 (Liverpool: The Athenaeum, 1997); M. K. Flavell, ‘The Enlightened Reader and the New Industrial Towns: A Study of the Liverpool Library, 1758–1790’, British Journal for Eighteenth-Century Studies, 8 (1985), 17–36; Ann Brooks and Bryan Howarth, Portico Library: A History (Lancaster: Carnegie Publishing, 2000). A paper offering a transatlantic comparison of the Athenaeum libraries of Liverpool and Boston, Massachusetts, using the minute books of both libraries was given by Lynda Yankaskas at the Liverpool colloquium of the Community Libraries network in January 2014.
60 Allan, ‘Eighteenth-Century Private Subscription Libraries’ records that the complete minutes of the Amicable society survive for 1769–1825, together with some library notes, rules, and later accounts and letter books. He also lists four surviving printed catalogues of the Amicable Society Library from our period (those from 1794 and 1812 have membership lists), and the 1905 liquidation sale catalogue. There are various catalogues and minute books for both of the Liverpool subscription libraries, but no loan records. The Athenaeum also boasts a complete set of accounts and acquisition registers, while its minute books are also complete; David Brazendale and Mark Towsey are currently preparing an edition of the minute books of the Athenaeum for publication by the Record Society of Lancashire and Cheshire. The earliest Portico printed catalogue dates to 1810, while there are various receipt books, ledgers and cash books from the same year, and a complete list of Proprietors from 1810; borrowing records date from 1850; Brooks and Howarth, p. 136.
61 On Scottish private libraries from our period, see Mark Towsey, ‘“I can’t resist sending you the book”: Book Lending, Elite Women and Shared Reading Practices in Georgian Scotland’, Library & Information History, 29.3 (2013), 210–22, and ‘“The Talent hid in a Napkin”: Castle Libraries in Scotland, 1770–1830’, in The History of Reading, ii: Evidence from the British Isles, c. 1750–1950, ed. by Katie Halsey and W. R. Owens (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011), pp. 15–31, as well as Vivienne Dunstan, ‘Book Ownership in Late Eighteenth-Century Scotland: A Local Case Study of Dumfriesshire Inventories’, Scottish Historical Review, 91.2 (2012), 265–86. Two panels at the London meeting of the Community Libraries network (January 2015) are devoted to the communal dimension of private libraries.
62 See <http://www.english.qmul.ac.uk/drwilliams/academies.html> [accessed 20 October 2014]. Cheryl Knott reported initial research findings from her collections overlap study of American subscription libraries at the Community Libraries network colloquia held at Liverpool and Chicago.
63 Several existing studies attempt to cross-reference reader response with library borrowings, and in some reading journals it is possible to find readers recording what books they borrowed with their responses alongside: see, for example, Colclough, ‘Procuring Books and Consuming Texts’. Reader response to Scottish Enlightenment texts is particularly well studied in this regard, and across a range of national contexts: see Allan, Making British Culture; Mark Spencer, David Hume and Eighteenth-Century America (Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 2005); and Mark Towsey, Reading the Scottish Enlightenment: Books and their Readers in Provincial Scotland (Leiden: Brill, 2009).
64 On this point see the podcast of my short paper ‘30 August 1777 and 12 June 1783: A Digital Impact Study of Two Censorship Measures’ given to the Around the World On-line Digital Humanities Symposium, 22 May 2014 (Parramatta, University of Western Sydney, session) at <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pSkN2zihnG0&feature=youtu.be> [accessed 20 October 2014]. My paper begins twenty minutes into the podcast. See also Simon Burrows, ‘French Censorship on the Eve of the Revolution’, in Censorship and the Limits of the Literary: A Global View, ed. by Nicole Moore (London: Bloomsbury, 2015, forthcoming).